Abstract
This
paper reviews the use of technology in career counseling from the early use of
computers to the current use of the Internet. Counselors need to become
electronically and technologically competent to appreciate career development,
job hunting, and employment difficulties in the twenty-first century. However,
it is warned that technology cannot replace basic career counseling skills for a
number of reasons. Acknowledging the impact of technology on career counseling,
Internet resources are provided for use by counseling professionals and clients
in conjunction with professionals.
We
live in a technological society and advanced technology continues to influence
our lives in the world of work and at home (Hansen,
1993). Computers, the World
Wide Web (WWW), the Internet, and electronic mail (e-mail) are discussed on a
regular basis. Discussions often revolve around how computers and information
networks are going to make our lives easier, or replace us as productive workers
in society. Some people know how to
utilize current technology and promote its use unabashedly. Other people are
scared of the technology for it means change. Consequently, differing views on
how this technology and information focused society will effect the world of
work, and thus career counseling, have been expressed.
Whereas
some people may be strongly in favor of anything technological and promote
technological change, others show fear regarding technology. However, this is
not the first major change in the world of work, we have survived other major
changes. For example, we have moved from a society based on agriculture to
industry and manufacturing to our current technological and information based
society (Patterson, 1985). Consequently, with planning, our society can survive
and thrive while we experience technological change. We are in what is now
called the Third Frontier or the Technological Revolution (Patterson, 1985;
Hansen, 1993). There is no turning back the clock. Planning, however, is needed
to place technology in a context for proper use or the possible benefits of
using our newfound technology will be lost, or at least minimized. This is
especially so within the field of career counseling.
Unfortunately,
deciding what the proper use of technology entails is not a simple matter. The
proper use of technology is a topic for debate especially within the counseling
field. Indeed, since the introduction of technology into the counseling arena
there have been supporters and detractors. For instance, one of the first to
highlight some of the advantages of recording and replaying therapy sessions for
supervision purposes was Carl Rogers (1942). At the time,
tape recorders were new technology and the use of audiotapes was met with some
controversy (Eberly & Cech,
1986). Similarly, the use of computers in
therapy for client scheduling, intake interviewing, testing, and biofeedback was
considered very controversial over a decade ago (Baron,
1985). As Noll and
Graves (1996, p. 41) point out, “Constantly changing technology impacts every
aspect of work and personal lives. And career services are no exception.” We
have been effected by the technology of fax machines, e-mail, electronic
databases, resume software, electronic interviews, and on-line bulletins (Noll
& Graves, 1996).
Currently,
the main controversies regarding the use of technology in counseling, and
specifically career counseling involves the use
of computers to provide career guidance counseling and the use of the Internet
in career counseling. Underlying these controversies, however, is a more
fundamental issue, the purpose of career counseling. Thus, the purpose of career
counseling will be discussed as the use of
computers and the Internet in career counseling is explored.
Computer
Use in Career Counseling
The
use of technology in career counseling will depend on the focus of career
counseling. If we focus most on assisting individuals to make educational and
vocational decisions (Harris-Bowlsbey,
1983), our greatest need may be for good
data or information to make good decisions. 
This may include self-assessment (Noll & Graves,
1996; Plant, 1993) of one’s interests and values along
with information regarding the current world of work. Computers can definitely
help provide the information needed to make decisions. Complete and accurate as
well as easily accessible data files on occupations can be found via computers (Walz
& Bleuer, 1985). Thus, computers could provide the information needed to
make what Parsons labeled as true reasoning (Kapes & Mastie,
1988). Indeed,
information regarding the changing career market and resources for training may
be better provided by computers due to the overwhelming amount of career
information a career counselor would have to obtain to be helpful (Gati,
1994;
Mariani, 1995; Zunker, 1990).
The
career counseling and guidance profession has seemingly indicated its acceptance
of this use of computer technology within career counseling, as many colleges
and universities and government centers now use career information delivery
systems (Mariani, 1995). The use of computers to store and provide easy access
to a multitude of occupational information could be said to have revolutionized
the provision of career counseling.
The
computer guidance programs most often cited in use are the System for Assessment
and Group Evaluation (SAGE), Computerized Career Assessment and Planning Program
(CCAPP), Inquiry, Discover, SIGI, and SIGI Plus programs (Baron,
1985; Farmer, 1976; Hansen,
1993; Kapes & Mastie, 1988;
Niles, 1997; Pyle,
1985; Stevens
& Lundberg, 1998; Zunker, 1990). These programs often include a large data
bank of information on educational, leisure, and occupational opportunities.
They often will also include a self-assessment component and are viewed as cost
efficient. Some authors also indicate that it is important to have decision
making skills and not just access to information (Patterson,
1985).
Consequently, some computer guidance programs also involve modules designed to
help someone become a better decision maker and problem solver. Computers have
been said to be able to help train clients to be more proficient decision makers
via providing instruction with the decision making process (Gati,
1994).
It
is with the decision making process that controversy can enter into the use of
computers within career counseling. Some writers have indicated that interaction
and feedback are important when one is making decisions and that one could use simulation
games to aid in the development of decision making skills (Harri-Bowlsbey,
1983). However, one could argue
that computers cannot provide appropriate interpersonal learning and that people
could also easily ignore computer prompts regarding deeper thinking about a
career decision.
Similarly,
the context in which a decision is made can have important implications for the
decision-maker (Gati, 1994; Stevens & Lundberg,
1998). Can a computer be
aware of context issues and the different complexities that context can bring to
a career decision? As career counselors we do not simply provide information to
clients, in a ‘test-and-tell’ fashion, but we also guide and support and
motivate people during their career transitions and decision making process (Corbishley
& Yost, 1989). Computers are wonderful tools but do we really consider them
motivating in the same manner as a therapeutic relationship and a healthy
interpersonal alliance? Indeed, as Gati (1994, p.
54) indicates, “many
features of the human-to-human interaction cannot be reproduced.”
If
one conceptualizes career counseling, as also involving more personal counseling
aspects, in addition to making career decisions, then the use of computers
within career counseling is even more limited. For instance, career counseling
may also involve discussions of balancing work and family obligations, reactions
to sexual harassment, stress due to work, discrimination in the work force,
bias, and pay inequities (Engels, Minor, Sampson, & Splete,
1995). Issues
involving grief over the loss of a job and unemployment may also be addressed in
career counseling (Hansen, 1993). Similarly, many career counselors see career
guidance as a lifelong process that involves effective general counseling skills
(Niles, 1997). A computer is not currently able to adequately discuss a
multitude of complex issues in a caring and interactive manner with clients in
differing contexts with different personal backgrounds.
If
computers are used for career decision making and advancing one’s
decision-making skills without the aid of a career counselor,
problems can occur. Computers are often seen as faultless and accurate (Gati,
1994). Thus, those who use computers for career decision making may mistakenly
believe that the computer test is telling one what to do unequivocally (Krumboltz,
1985). This could promote decision making without attention to
within-occupational variance (Gati, 1994) and thus ignore personal variables
effecting the career decision making process and/or career difficulty.
Nevertheless, Noll and Graves (1996) reported that few career centers require or
recommend placement officer interviews for those using computer guidance
systems. This is despite the fact that students have indicated preferring
structured interventions when using computers versus independent computer use (Pyle,
1985). Thus, our need to utilize computers as tools within career
counseling in a structured and comprehensive
manner is highlighted. Computers can not replace counselors but can be used as
tools within career counseling (Gati, 1994;
Krumboltz, 1985)
In
summary, computers can be very helpful in career
counseling in the area of providing up to date occupational data (Zunker,
1990).
Assessments may also be expediently conducted via computers. However, the
assessment of personal interests and abilities via computer can be tricky as the
interpretation of low scores needs to be nonjudgmental (Kapes & Mastie,
1988) and appropriate interpretation often requires clinical skill. Computers
can be programmed with information but as of yet are not readily capable of
highly applicable and flexible clinical skills. Moreover, as career counseling
involves personal counseling and not just directive information (Imbimbo,
1994),
computers are merely a tool for use in career counseling and will not be able to
entirely replace career counselors (Zunker, 1990).
Internet
Use in Career Counseling
The
absence of a career counselor with whom to discuss career decision making is
also a main objection to providing comprehensive career development information
on the Internet (Guerra, 1998). The Internet and the availability of career
counseling resources on the World Wide Web (WWW) and via e-mail is the second
main current controversy regarding the use of technology in career counseling.
The Internet is quickly becoming a revolutionary force in everyday private and
business life. As reported by Mangelsdorf (1998, p.
52) “Call it a revolution.
For better or worse, 1994 marked the year the on-line world, after quietly
building momentum for years, finally hit the popular consciousness.” The
Internet has the ability to quickly revolutionize the provision of career
counseling.
The
Internet has been defined as (Fuller & Manning, 1998, p.
14) “A vast
network of networks that connects computers across the entire country and around
the world.” Through the Internet one can send and receive e-mail from
individuals and subscription lists devoted to various topics were people e-mail
each other as a group. In addition, one can view images and read text on
individual World Wide Web (WWW) sites. The WWW is defined as (Fuller &
Manning, 1998) a “global system of computer networks linked together by
hypertext links that allow a user to jump from any place on the Web to another
place on the Web.”
Many
of the interest assessment devices and occupational data bases available via
computer based systems, such as those previously discussed, are now available
on-line via the Internet. Thus, the benefits and possible drawbacks of providing
this information via computer apply to the provision of this information via the
Internet. For instance, whereas one can have access to timely employment data
on-line (Epstein, 1997) one could also miss the interpersonal aspects of
counselor-client interaction (Goss, Robson,
Pelling, & Renard, 2001).
The
Internet can be used as a tool in career counseling to help clients investigate
their interests, career options, employment statistics, and educational as well
as occupational opportunities. The need for career counselor involvement with
clients as they use the Internet as a resource exists for many of the reasons
career counselors advocate their involvement with clients using the previously
described computer systems. The need for career counselor involvement may also
be increased due to the fear some people have of computers and the lack of
access some may have to computers (Mariani, 1995; Stevens & Lundberg,
1998).
There
is also a danger of information overload as so much information can be available
on-line. One may additionally require assistance in evaluating Internet material
as all Internet resources are not necessarily of high quality. Moreover, certain
clients could also unwittingly become behaviorally addicted to Internet use.
Internet addiction is currently a topic being researched (Stevens &
Lundberg, 1998; Grohol, 1997). In addition, as
feelings of isolation have been shown to increase with Internet use (Sleek,
1998), the interpersonal relationship a client has with a career counselor could
be doubly important. Moreover, we must not forget that generally only more
affluent clients will have greater access to on-line resources (Mangelsdorf,
1998). As a result, this author is not in favor of solely providing career
services over the Internet or via computer, despite the fact that career
counseling via the Internet is already occurring
(Mangelsdorf, 1998; Sherman, 1994; Sleek, 1997). The current author seconds
Imbimbo’s (1994, p. 58) assertion that “The challenge for counselors is to
be able to provide a comprehensive service to clients who have comprehensive
needs.” This may include computers or the Internet as a tool but not replace
the career counselor.
In
addition to mirroring the uses of computers in career counseling previously
discussed, the Internet can aid in career development and employment hunting in
some additional ways. First, as many employers are interested in hiring workers
who are technologically literate, counseling clients using the Internet as a
tool not only helps with the presenting career problems clients bring to session
but also teaches clients a new and marketable skill: technological literacy (Mosca,
1989; Noll & Graves, 1996). Second, many people have made connections and
thus network well on-line. However, one must remember that this does not
diminish the importance of real life networking (Epstein,
1997). Third, many
jobs are posted on-line and consequently one
could have access to a larger job market if they are able to investigate
Internet resources. However, once again one must be warned that not all jobs
will be advertised on-line (Epstein, 1997). Fourth, clients can computerize
their resume and candidate data and post this information on the Internet for
employers to seek out (Clips, 1995; Noll & Graves,
1996). Finally, clients
can investigate possible employers for company stability and policies that may
effect their satisfaction with a position within the agency.
To
summarize, large amounts of employment information and career connections can be
obtained and cultivated on the Internet if one knows where to look and has the
support needed to evaluate and use this information (Niles,
1997). As stated by
Stevens and Lundberg (1998, p. 203) “Internet fluency provides the career
counselor with a highly interactive mode of communication and potentially
up-to-date sources of information.” Career counselors are in a perfect
position to utilize these resources for their client’s benefit.
However, to do this effectively counselors must be technologically
literate themselves. Indeed, Niles (1997) reports that technology is listed as
one of the 11 categories of minimum competence for the professional practice of
career counseling and Noll and Graves (1996) report that the need for students
to use electronic communication technologies effectively exists.
As stated succinctly by Eberly and Cech (1986, p.
24) “The question is
not whether to use technology, but how to use it to best advantage given the
setting in which one works” and our settings now include computers and the
Internet.
We
still need more research investigating the effects of computers in career
counseling. Consequently, Eberly and Cech’s (1986) call for research to
investigate the effects of computers and when they are best used remains
pertinent, not only to the use of computers but the use of the Internet in
general with career counseling. However, the fact that we can use these
resources with our clients remains. It is clear that, as Mosca (1989, p.
99)
asserts, “The entire work force has been influenced by technical advances;
therefore, it is a personal responsibility to keep up with change and the
instability of employment.” But how do we do this as career counselors, and
how do we do this ethically and in the best interests of our clients? I have a
few suggestions. We should be knowledgeable and stay abreast of changes that may
effect the field of career counseling, including knowledge sources. However, we
should also always remember that both computers and the Internet are tools, and
should be used within our work as career counselors and not to replace our work.
Mosca (1989) indicates that workers must attain technological literacy and I
believe this applies to career counselors. With this in mind I would now like to
provide some Internet resources that could be used in career counseling.
The
following list is not exhaustive but simply a sampling of what is available on
the Internet relating to career counseling. One should also be warned that
Internet information is constantly changing and thus while this list was current
at the time of publication some information may have since changed. If this is
the case please contact me at nadine_pelling@yahoo.com.au and I will attempt to
help you with your Internet question.
Career
Counseling Internet Resources
E-Mail
Discussion Lists.
Getting onto a discussion list is similar to subscribing to a magazine. Once you
have access to e-mail (a mailbox) and subscribe to a discussion list or listserv
(magazine) you will receive messages from those who post to the list. You can
simply read messages, or read and also post notes to the list, or send messages
privately (called back-channel discussions) to other list members if you address
your e-mail directly to individual list members. E-mail listservs exist for a
variety of subjects and this includes career counseling. However, many lists can
be very busy and thus you may receive a large amount of e-mail. Consequently,
you are warned that you should sign on to only a few mailing lists at a time so
as to avoid information overload (Pelling, 1995;
Pelling & Renard, 1998).
What
follows is a listing of some career counseling discussion groups that can be
used by career counselors in their work. Some listings can also be used by
clients in conjunction with support from their employment counselors.
E-Mail
Discussion Group Resources
Professional
Counselors
Discussion
list for professional counselors who are seeking discussions regarding their
profession. Includes career counselors.
Send
the message subscribe to
professionalcounselors-subscribe@topica.com
TRDEV-L
Discussion
on training and development.
Send
the message subscribe TRDEV-L to listserv@lists.psu.edu
TESLJB-L
Discussion
on jobs and employment issues.
Send
the message subscribe TESLJB-L to listserv@cunyvm.cuny.edu
ADA-LAW
Discussion
on any aspects of the Americans with Disabilities Act.
Send
the message subscribe ADA-LAW to listserv@listserv.nodak.edu
NAT-WORK
Discussion
list for all aspects of work and employment as they relate to American Indian
populations.
Send
the message subscribe NAT-WORK to listserv@lists.uakron.edu
BLINDJOB
Discussion
list for all aspects of work and employment as they relate to blind people.
Send
the message subscribe BLINDJOB to listserv@mailstrom.stjohns.edu
World
Wide Web Sites.
As previously indicated, the World Wide Web also contains a large amount of
career related information. One can use search engines to locate materials, or
simply input a known web address to view a site. All one needs to view WWW pages
are Internet access and a web browser program, such as Netscape or Explorer (Pelling
& Renard, 1998).
What
follows is a listing of some career counseling WWW sites that can be used by
career counselors in their work. Also listed are some WWW sites that can be used
by clients when working with career counselors for support. The following list
is categorized for ease of use. The categories that follow are Counselor
Resources, Client/Counselor Resources, Employment Investigation Resources,
Resume Resources, and Employment Hunting Resources.
Counselor
Resources
Catapult
Links
to other career and job related sites.
http://www.jobweb.org/catapult/catapult.htm
National
Career Development Association (NCDA)
http://www.ncda.org/
Workplace
Violence Research Institute
http://noworkviolence.com/
Human
Resources Development Canada
Career
and employment related information.
http://www.hrdc-drhc.gc.ca
Counseling
Resources on the Net
Includes
career resources.
http://www.csun.edu/~hfedp001/edpsych.html
Chronicle
of Higher Education: Career Network – Job Listings
http://chronicle.merit.edu/jobs/
Client/Counselor
Resources
Employment
Search Readiness Guide
http://www.careerweb.com/inventory/
University
of Manitoba Career Page
Information
on career choices.
http://www.umanitoba.ca/counslling/careers.html
Interest
and Aptitude Questionnaires
http://www.schoolfinder.com/
Occupational
Outlook Handbook/Dictionary of Occupational Titles
http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocodot1.htm
JobStar
Central
http://jobstar.org
Career
Exploration Tool (Middle and HS/Adult)
http://www.ncsu.edu/careerkey
Employment
Investigation Resources
Department
of Labor America’s Career Infonet
http://www.acinet.org
Keirsey
Personality Test
http://www.advisorteam.com/user/ktsintro.asp
JobHuntersBible
http://www.jobhuntersbible.com/
Department
of Labor JobBank
http://www.ajb.dni.us
Resume
Resources
The
Riley Guide
Job
search, cover letters, and networking information.
http://www.dbm.com/jobguide/jsguides.html
Resume
Postings
http://www.careercity.com
JobBank
USA
Resume
Postings
http://www.jobbankusa.com
Canadian
Resume Centre - Resume postings
http://netaccess.on.ca/~resume
Employment
Hunting Resources
CareerBuilder
http://www.careerpath.com/
Human
Resources Development Canada
http://worksearch.gc.ca/english/index.pl?tid=19
HotJobs.com
http://relolinks.com/hotjobs/
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