Abstract

Gaming technology and simulations have become increasingly popular within the United States and beyond over the past ten years. A careful understanding of the dynamics that make these games successful can serve as an informative tool for creating educational games and technology. Utilized in various disciplines as an educational tool, gaming technology has been virtually ignored by the counseling profession. This paper provides a brief history of gaming technology and examines the utility of gaming and the potential applications in counselor education programs along with special considerations with respect to technology competencies to utilize this technology in the counseling profession.

             The implementation of and effective use of technology is a key element in most plans for reforming and restructuring education (Scheffler & Logan, 1999). It is safe to say that all disciplines strive to ensure that their students have knowledge in areas such as evaluation, access of information, how to locate needed resources and how to apply knowledge to issues and problems (Scheffler & Logan, 1999). This paper seeks to highlight how gaming and simulation technology can be used to enrich counseling programs and practice. A brief overview of gaming, competencies needed, as well as the challenges and implications in using this technology will also be explored.

Over the years, there has been an increasing reliance on the use of technology to not only accomplish core program objectives but also to increase the level of interactivity between students and educators. The counseling profession also has seen an increase in the use of technology over the last few years (Berry, Srebalus, Cromer & Tackas, 2003; Granello, 2000; McFadden & Jencius, 2000). The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (CACREP) as well as the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) recognize the utility of technology and both outline specific technology competencies for counseling programs. Counselor education and clinical practice have long benefited from the use of technology mediums such as the computer, internet, audio equipment, video equipment and other types of multimedia technology. However, the use of simulation and gaming technology in counselor education and practice has been underutilized.

            The use of simulation and gaming technology as a learning strategy is a relatively new phenomenon that is slowly gaining acceptance. College professors, military and other trainers acknowledge the benefits and use games to motivate their learners, and teach complex concepts (Kirk, 2001). The potential exists for this technology to impact various facets of counselor training and clinical practice (Smokowski, 2003). With an increasing emphasis on performance-based assessments of counseling students, one can no longer ignore the fact that true competence cannot be solely assessed through written examinations. How do you then assess a counseling student’s performance before he or she begins working with clients? The use of gaming technology provides a solution.

Brief History of Gaming

            Most individuals encounter some form of gaming in their lifetime. The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) reports that about seventy-five percent of American heads of households play computer and video games and, in 2004, more than 248 million computer and video games were sold (ESA, 2005). Simulations, which essentially model physical or social systems through another system such as a computer interface, play a pivotal role in most of these games (Squire, 2003). There are several types of simulations. Realism-based simulation includes contemporary car racing games, business simulations, sports, combats, and civilization development games. Abstract simulation includes space battle games, fantasy and adventure. Other types of simulations include puzzle games and conversions of traditional games (Kirriermuir, 2002).

The first video game, “Pong” was introduced in 1970. Another classic game which many are familiar with, is “Pac Man.” The gaming industry now produces increasingly sophisticated gaming environments. Gaming has been used for naval training and concept development since the 19th century (Coleman, 2001). Coleman also indicates that the term gaming obtained a new meaning as the Navy and Marine Corps discovered the “value of applying commercial personal computer (PC) gaming technology to meet tactical training and concept analysis” (p.73). With the advent of affordable, high-speed Pentium processors, increased hard disk capacity and high performance video cards, several gaming companies partner with military sources to ensure that game performance and data-bases reflect reality as closely and accurately as possible (Coleman, 2001). For example, the military utilizes this technology to help desensitize trainees so they can act and perform more objectively when faced in real-life situations.

            The medical profession uses simulation crisis care and simulated surgical interventions to help enrich the training of medical students and paramedics (Somokowski, 2003). The National Institute of Justice uses simulation gaming technology (Incident Commander) to help public safety workers learn to effectively respond to terrorist attacks, hostage situations and natural disasters (LoPiccolo, 2004). Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Wisconsin launched the “Education Arcade” initiative to help transform the classroom use of video and computer games (Roach, 2003). They strive to create games that are both educational and entertaining. The “Virtual U” project is another example of how gaming technology can be applied to education. Other programs such as the “Serious Games Initiative” and “Social Impact Games” have also embarked on the effective utilization of gaming technology for training in any profession (LoPiccolo, 2004).

            Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy is one application that introduces the mental health profession to the use of simulations. The mental health profession has primarily seen the introduction of one such application – the use of simulations in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy. Many authors argue that this method is effective in treating anxiety disorders (Orman, 2003), social phobias (Klinger, Bouchard, Legeron, Lauer, Chemin & Nugues, 2005) and driving phobias (Wald & Taylor, 2003). Smit & Van Der Molen (1996) and Sharf & Lucas (1993), advocate for the use of simulation for the assessment of counseling skills. Berven (1985) calls for the use of case management simulations and Smokowski (2003) highlights the applicability of gaming in enhancing group work practice. Despite these grounded appeals (some more than a decade old), very little has been done to begin incorporating gaming technology as a learning tool in counselor education programs.

An Innovative and Engaging Approach

            According to the Entertainment Software Association (ESA, 2005), approximately 50% of Americans play video games (about 145 million people) and 43% of interactive gamers are women. Because of the enormous use of gaming technology in recent years, the need exists to discover what makes gaming so engaging to the user and whether these attributes can be transferred to the creation of games which can be used in counselor education.

            Malone (1981) argues that three main elements make video games fun: challenge, fantasy and curiosity. Malone further uses these elements to serve as guidelines for creating educational programs. He purports that education games should have: (1) clear goals that students find meaningful, (2) multiple goal structures and scoring to give students feedback on their progress, (3) multiple difficulty levels to adjust the game difficulty to learner skill, (4) random elements of surprise, and (5) an emotionally appealing fantasy and metaphor that is related to game skills (Squire, 2003; Malone, 1981). Another researcher, Bowman (1982) explains that the power of video games “lies in the fact that they are action systems where skills and challenges are progressively balanced, goals are clear, feedback is immediate and unambiguous and relevant stimuli can be differentiated from irrelevant stimuli. Together, this combination contributes to the formation of a flow experience” (Bowman, 1982, p.15).

            Students in traditional classes generally have little control over their learning. The students function as recipients of materials and activities chosen by their instructors who must then adapt to the ability level of their group. In addition, feedback on performance is in many areas shallow, imprecise and normative (Bowman, 1982). The use of gaming technologies can challenge students, promote collaboration, accommodate varying learning styles and hence enhance student learning (Bowman, 1982; Squire, 2003).

Harnessing the Innovation

            Since the advent of gaming, the debate has continued on the potentially negative impact of the use of videogames and other gaming technologies (Provonzo, 1991). Some argue that gaming can lead to violence and aggression among other unhealthy behaviors and attitudes. However, the research on gaming finds little to no evidence to support these arguments (Squire, 2003). Additionally, newer games enhance character development and foster meaningful learning. The Entertainment Software Association purports that generally gamers spend about 23.4 hours per week on activities such as exercising, community involvement and reading compared with only 6.8 hours per week playing video games.

            Squire (2003) likenes gaming to traditional storytelling. Additionally, he presents the following five reasons why gaming technology proves to be a powerful learning tool: (1) they allow the user to manipulate otherwise unalterable variables, (2) they enable students to view phenomena from new perspectives, (3) they allow the student to observe systems of behavior over time, (4) pose hypothetical questions to a system, (5) visualize a system in three dimensions (Barab, Hay, & Duffy, 1999), and (6) compare simulations with the users’ understanding of a system. Gaming technology creates digital representations of an emerging world, introduces the players to various environments that help them identify with it, and learn the rules of the system (Trotter, 2004). The use of gaming also provides the user exposure to many different stimuli and environments that they would otherwise not be able to experience naturally due to ethical or other reasons.

            Pioneers in instructional technology warn that the success of educational games lies in the instructional context of the game and not in the game itself. Therefore, the game’s conceptualization, and the user’s ability to process the experience and outcomes that contribute to the success of educational games (Clegg, 1991; Squire, 2002). In short, gaming cannot be fully understood without considering the social and cultural context within which they operate (Mitchell, 1985).

Applying Gaming Technology in Counselor Education

            According to Baggerly (2002) and Kagan (1973), learning in counselor education programs typically entails didactic presentations, role playing, feedback from others, and feedback from self. Jones and Karper (2000) also agree that counselor education programs emphasize active learning strategies and skills mastery, which enhance the student’s developmental and collaborative processes (Baggerly, 2002). The use of gaming, particularly simulations can enrich key components of counseling programs. All of these key components of counseling programs can be enriched through the use of gaming and in particular simulations.

                        Gifford (1991) identified seven attributes that make gaming both fun and effective learning tools. These attributes also clearly describe why gaming technology is a great fit for counselor education:

(1)                 Free play (Creativity): As opposed to current modes of instruction, games are without limitations of space, time, or gravity;

(2)                 Microworlds: Allow the user to move with ease between electronic microworlds and from one graphical environment to another. This sharply contrasts with the methods use in conventional classrooms;

(3)                 Instant replay encourages risk taking: He argues that games can provide an instant replay of students’ performances, allowing them to study, edit, or try again in a safe environment for risk-taking;

(4)                 Mastery: Even when the user is struggling to learn a complex game, they usually feel they are in control. The feeling of control is encouraged by the ease with which players can repeat an activity until it has been mastered;

(5)                 Interaction: Users tend to experience computers as partners in learning. They relish this non-hierarchical relationship in which the roles of teacher and student are blurred or altered;

(6)                 Clear goals: Students in the classroom cannot always see the point of learning math, science or social studies. However, when they play electronic games they are usually working toward a clear objective. Compelling games give game players high levels of motivation; and

(7)                 Intense Absorption: Short attention spans and poor impulse control frequently disappear with effective computer interventions, supporting the notion that changing the environment, not the child can support individual success (Gifford, 1991, p.7).

            Berry, Srebalus, Cromer and Takacs (2003) found that counselor trainees possess different learning styles with no truly dominant learning style. The implication for counselor education programs is that instruction needs to be varied to meet the diverse needs of all students. Counselor trainers and educators must bear in mind that pedagogical theory and principles must guide the application of gaming technology in counseling programs and that technology should not be used blindly.

Instructional and Clinical Application

            Some proponents of the use of gaming technology in education argue that developing educational games is now an imperative, as students of the video-game generation no longer respond favorably to traditional instruction” (Prensky, 2000; Squire, 2002). Gaming and simulation technologies can be infused into the curriculum of counselor education programs, particularly in “techniques” and “practicum” courses where simulated clinical experiences might be advantageous. Additionally, this technology can create innovative and exciting tools for learning several types of information such as counseling theories, DSM-IV-TR diagnoses, assessments, clinical interventions and other content driven topics.

            Gaming provides creative options to transfer knowledge through the use of innovative multimedia presentations either in the classroom or to enhance professional conference presentations. Providing the audience with scenarios to demonstrate clinical interventions and intervention-related decision trees is one example. Whether in the classroom or at a conference, the use of actual client sessions during a presentation to demonstrate certain skills may not be feasible and could create certain ethical considerations. Gaming technology not only addresses the issues of client confidentiality but also provides for a more interactive presentation with no client risk. Additionally, counseling simulations can teach trainees to differentiate between client emotional states (Alpert, 1986), and examine the evaluation of clinical and counseling skills (Berven & Scofield, 1980). Instructional strategies and techniques that integrate gaming and simulation also would increase content retention and skill mastery (Gifford, 1991).

            Simulation and gaming technologies provide unlimited opportunities for the presentation of scenarios, clinical environments, multicultural populations, client demographics, and client disorders. Uses include teaching trainees critical skills such as empathy, active listening, reflection, clarification and questioning, linking, tone setting as well as establishing, holding, shifting and deepening the focus, which are all components of core counseling courses (Jacobs, Masson, & Harvill, 2002). The ability to immerse students in high-risk situations and with high-risk populations provides another benefit in using gaming in counseling preparation programs. Creating simulations with these scenarios allow for “role-playing” that would greatly enrich the interaction and exposure level that counseling students receive, without the dangers involved in using actual clients.   

            Handheld consoles, a delivery method of gaming and simulation technology, offer a novel and interesting alternative to traditional modes of instruction (Kirriemur, 2002). They are easy and simple to use, portable and inexpensive. Potential uses include tutor-led counselor preparation games, and assessments (quizzes, interactive modes of testing) to promote collaboration in achieving objectives of the class and to enhance critical skills needed to become competent in the profession of counseling. Handheld consoles also provide a medium to develop interactive electronic textbooks or course materials. Limitations in application potentials for handheld consoles rest only with counselor education and gaming developers (Kirriemur, 2002).

            Simulation and gaming applications exist for direct use with clients as well. This technology provides the client exposure to virtual environments, similar to his or her real life situation, allowing them to experiment with decisions and consequences. Examples include dealing with peer pressure, desensitization exercises, active listening, and assertiveness training to name a few (Klinger, et al., 2005; Orman, 2003; Wald & Taylor, 2003). “As the simulation user experiments, he or she links decisions and consequences without having to experience the process in real life” (Smokowski, 2003, p19). Additionally, gaming technology enhances the delivery of self-help psycho-educational resources. Such technology can be used with depression, career decision-making, parenting, substance abuse education and conflict resolution resources (Sampson, Kolodinsky & Greeno, 1997). However, it would be important to evaluate and identify if face-to-face counseling might be more efficacious than self-help or if they should be use in tandem. Whether used during the session or as assigned homework, simulation and gaming technologies provide an innovative resource for counselors and clients.

Computer simulations and gaming also prove beneficial in clinical supervision activities.  These technologies would allow the user to create his or her own computer simulations using recorded tapes from previous sessions (Smokowski, 2003). The benefit of creating computer simulations lies in “the integration of text, transitions, and most important, programmed decision trees” (p.18). Effective use of micro-counseling techniques, such as minimal encouragers and active listening, can be assessed using simulation exercises developed by the supervisor or counselor (Jacobs et al., 2002). Additionally, these technologies can limit isolation during supervisor-supervisee collaborations, particularly when geographic distance presents as an issue (Casey, Bloom & Moan, 1994).

Next Steps

            The review of the literature suggests that there is still a need for further research on the use of technology in the counseling profession (Hayes, 1999). Key issues such as the theoretical contexts of games, motivation to use computer games and individual differences, and the creation of games to be used in the counseling profession need to be thoroughly reviewed. It also is crucial that the client and students remain the primary focus of these games, with the technology being secondary to these.

            Berry, Srebalus, Cromer and Takacs (2003) reveal that the technology competencies of counselor educators fall below those of counselor trainees. Additionally, the use of traditional role-playing was a low preference mode of instruction suggesting that counselor educators need to employ more captivating and technology-enhanced modes of instruction to satisfy the learning needs of their students. To ensure this, counselor educators need ongoing education and training on the emerging technologies to remain technologically proficient and to translate their technological competence, confidence and knowledge to their students (Berry et al., 2003).

            Desired or needed technology competencies vary depending on use. It is unlikely that counselor educators and others that train mental health professionals will develop the technological skills needed to write and develop simulation and gaming software due to the extensive academic training in computer science needed. However, teaching counselor educators the skills needed to effectively and efficiently collaborate with gaming software developers might be the most beneficial approach. The ambitious and technologically proficient counselor educator can eventually develop the software.

Again, it is important that equal emphasis be placed on using this new technology in all aspects of counselor trainer programs particularly in instruction (See Table 1), counseling ( See Table 2), clinical supervision (See Table 3) and research (See Table 4). The tables present potential uses of gaming technology and simulation in counselor education programs.

            The Technology Competencies outlined by the Association for Counselor Educators and Supervisors (ACES) provides a set of skills needed to effectively utilize gaming technology. Although the competencies do not all relate to gaming and simulation, the skills would be needed at some point in the collaboration or software development process. The 12 competencies are:

1.       Be able to use productivity software to develop web pages, group presentations, letters, and reports;

  1. Be able to use such audiovisual equipment as video recorders, audio recorders, projection equipment, video conferencing equipment, and playback units;
  2. Be able to use computerized statistical packages;
  3. Be able to use computerized testing, diagnostic, and career decision-making programs with clients;
  4. Be able to use email;
  5. Be able to help clients search for various types of counseling-related information via the internet, including information about careers, employment opportunities, educational & training opportunities, financial assistance/scholarships, treatment procedures, and social and personal information;
  6. Be able to subscribe, participate in, and sign off counseling related list serves;
  7. Be able to access and use counseling related CD-ROM data bases;
  8. Be knowledgeable of the legal and ethical codes which relate to counseling services via the internet;
  9. Be knowledgeable of the strengths and weaknesses of counseling services provided via the internet;
  10. Be able to use the internet for finding and using continuing education opportunities in counseling; and
  11. Be able to evaluate the quality of Internet information (ACES Technology Interest Networks, 1999).

            Once these fundamental skills are attained by counselors, the next step involves learning technology competencies related to gaming. Curricula would include modeling and simulation, instructional design, and understanding simulation systems (Barab, Hay, & Duffy, 1999; Squire, 2003; Thiagarajan, 1998). One program that provides the required educational training is the Graduate Certificate in Instructional Design for Simulations in the College of Education at the University of Central Florida (University of Central Florida, 2004). The program description states, “The graduate certificate in Instructional Design for Simulations takes an interdisciplinary approach to prepare instructional designers and human resource and training specialists in corporate, industry and educational settings to design training and educational systems, addressing both the technical and the instructional aspects of stand-alone and PC-based desktop training simulations” (p.1). This graduate certificate consists of five courses: Instructional Systems Design, Transmedia Story Creation, Introduction to Modeling and Simulations, Instructional Simulations Design for training and education and Instructional Game Design for training and education..

            Another program is the Graduate Certificate in Interactive Design and Game Development (Savannah College of Art and Design, n.d.). That program description states, “Students develop skills that allow them to create interactive art and design to meet a variety of vendor industry standards. These include content and design for open-source as well as for closed proprietary systems. Students utilize various applications and programming techniques” (p.1). The five courses in this program include: Interactive Design and Media Application, Visual Interface and Informational Design, Interactive Web Design, Scripting for Interactivity, and Database and Dynamic Web Site Programming. Counselor educators who take this step to increase their knowledge and skills in this area position themselves for collaboration opportunities and software development in simulation and gaming.

            It is important to note that advanced proficiency in gaming technology will not be needed for use of the software. Newer applications are increasingly less complex and easier to use. Additionally, professional development and training in new technologies and software should become a common practice for all counseling professionals who wish to stay current in this area. Counselor trainees also need adequate introduction and training in the use of these gaming technologies before use with clients. Providing counseling trainees and practicing clinicians who use these technologies with frequent opportunities for reflection, debriefing and follow-up with a qualified supervisor, will maximize benefits to clients.

Conclusion

            Gaming technology has been used in educational settings for decades. Such instructional modes exists in the military, commercial pilot training, and in many edutainment products used in the classroom. Major advancements in gaming technology continue and has yet to be fully explored by the counseling profession. The use of gaming and simulation proves efficacious in the instruction of counseling theories as well as in the transferring of skills needed to become practitioners. Additionally, opportunities exist for counselor educators and trainers to learn and develop technological skills and competencies needed to effectively collaborate and even develop simulation and gaming software for counselor trainees and clients. Ultimately, the use of gaming in counselor education programs will serve to enhance the work of counselor educators in the classroom and enhance client outcomes.

 

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Authors' Biography

 

Wendy Greenidge is from the Caribbean island of St. Lucia and received a Master's Degree in Clinical Psychology from the University of Central Florida. She is currently a second year doctoral student in Counselor Education also at the University of Central Florida in Orlando. She has worked extensively with child and adolescent populations especially in the areas of substance abuse and sexual abuse. Her main research interests include infusing technology into counseling programs as well as counseling culturally diverse populations. Wendy can be reached at 407-455-2638, wgreenid@mail.ucf.edu or P.O. Box 781192, Orlando, FL 32878.

Dr. Andrew Daire earned his M.S. in Mental Health Counseling from Stetson University and his Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology from the Florida State University. He is a Florida Licensed Mental Health Counselor and National Certified Counselor. His areas of professional and research interests are caregiving issues with families impacted by special needs, career development, and integrating technology and technology competencies in counselor education. He can be reached at adaire@mail.ucf.edu.