Abstract
Although
literature related to the use of technology in the counseling field
is continuing to grow, minimal attention has been focused
specifically on how technological advances can be used to improve
the academic preparation of graduate students, particularly in
regard to the facilitation of the supervision process of counseling
interns. In this article, an overview of literature related to the
general use of technology in the counseling profession, as well as
ethical concerns, are summarized, followed by a discussion of
supervisory technological tools that have been used to date. Ways
that WebCT specifically can be used in field training courses to
address the supervision of counseling interns ensues. The article
concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of
this training means, and evaluation issues.
Supervision, as defined by
Bernard & Goodyear (2004), is “…an
intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession to a
more junior member…of that same profession ‘(p. 8). These authors
continue to state that the supervision relationship is evaluative,
extends over time, monitors the quality of services delivered,
enhances the professional functioning of the junior member, and
serves as a gatekeeper to those entering a particular profession.
With increased credentialing demands, managed care evaluations and
dictates, and accountability and liability concerns associated with
the counseling profession, it is essential that counselor educators
ensure that supervision is provided in a timely and efficient manner
that is consistent with the technological advances of the twenty
first century. Perhaps somewhat surprising is the dearth of
literature in the counseling field in which the use of technology in
the supervision of interns is addressed.
Bernard & Goodyear (2004)
suggest that the use of technology itself is limited in the mental
health profession, thus ultimately impacting on the minimal
existence of research related to the use of the Internet in the
counseling education supervision process. The primary focus of what
has been written to date pertains to the development of distance
learning counseling courses, and the use of technology in a generic,
isolated manner to facilitate the process of supervisory feedback.
In
the following section, an overview of literature related to the
general use of technology in counseling and supervision is
summarized. This review lays the historical foundation for the
following discussion of the specific use of WebCT as an important
ancillary tool in the supervision process of counseling interns. A
summary of ways that WebCT can be used in field training courses to
address supervision issues ensues. The article concludes with a
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of this training
means, and ethical concerns to be considered.
technology
& counseling
Much of the technological research in the counseling field has been
focused on the facilitation of the counseling process between client
and counselor (Baltimore, 2000;
Barak, 1999;
Byers, 1981;
Cabaniss,
2001;
Casey, Bloom & Moan, 1994;
Gati, (1994);
Hines, 2002;
Sabella, 1996;
1998;
2000;
Sampson, 1994;
Walz, 1996). However, publications in the realm of counselor
education related to the academic preparation of interns are gaining
momentum (Baltimore, 2002;
Lundberg, 2000;
Myrick & Sabella, 1995;
Sampson, 1995;
Sharf & Lucas, 1993;
Wagman & Kerber, 1984;
White,
1988). While some still remain skeptical to the use of technology in
the human services field of counseling in general (Abney & Maddux,
2004), others argue that the two are quite compatible. Lundberg
(2000) defends the general suitability of technology in conjunction
with humanistic approaches, and specifically argues for its use in
the training of counselor educators.
In
an attempt to further address the utilization of technology
specifically in Counselor Education Programs,
Quinn, Hohenshill &
Fortune (2002)
surveyed all such program which were CACREP accredited
{Council of Counseling and Related Educational Programs}. One
specific question raised by these authors dealt with the type of
courses in which technology was being used. While they speculated
that it was reasonable to believe that practicum and internship
supervision components could be delivered via interactive satellite,
it was found that the courses most often offered totally through
this instructional means were Career and Lifestyle Development;
followed by Human Growth and Development, and Research and Program
Evaluation, with percentages all falling into the less than ten
percent category. Another question these authors addressed was that
of the training of Counselor Education faculty in the use of
technology. Approximately two thirds of the respondents in this
study felt they were adequately prepared. In contrast, Myers &
Gibson (2000), as cited in
Baggerly (2002), found that many
counselor educators lack a high level of competence. It is important
that the notions of faculty preparation and competence be further
defined, differentiated and evaluated. Over three decades ago,
Engels, Caulum, & Sampson (1984) attempted to define technology
competence. They called for ‘competence’ to be addressed in terms of
a feeling of confidence in using computers, a theoretical knowledge
pertaining to the process inherent in program design, and conceptual
skills which enable users to infuse computer programs in their
professional practice. More recently,
Sabella (2001)
defined and specified numerous
technological competencies required of school counselors such as the
ability to develop web pages, group presentations, letters and
reports; use audiovisual equipment, computerized statistical
packages, testing, diagnostic and career decision-making programs,
and e-mail; participate in listservs, utilize search engines, and
find continuing education opportunities; use counseling related
CD-ROM data bases; be aware of benefits and limits of technology,
evaluate information received, and know associated ethical and legal
concerns.
The issue of faculty technological preparation and competencies is
very possibly connected to the kind of technology implemented. A
third key area evaluated by
Quinn et al.
(2002) pertained to the type
of technology utilized in these programs, and its instructional
purpose. They found that the traditional type of technology included
videotaping and playback, fax machines, and overheads. Most of the
technology was used for e-mail communication between faculty and
students, and departmental web pages; individual faculty member web
sites; listservs; development of materials for class, online
research; and posting class information. Similarly,
McMinn,
Buchanan, Ellens, & Ryan (1999), in a survey of several hundred
psychologists, discovered that the only technologies frequently used
were the telephone, copier, and fax machine; software programs for
test scoring and interpretation, and computer assistance for
financial purposes. These findings were also supported by the work
of VandenBos & Williams, with psychologists rarely utilizing more
sophisticated means of technology.
Additional studies have been conducted in which more advanced
technological uses in pedagogical counseling instruction are
described. Baggerly (2002) discussed the development of course web
sites, often involving course delivery systems such as Blackboard’s
Course Info and Web-Based Course Tool (WebCT); She further mentioned
presentations involving graphic software packages, and movie clips,
as means to foster counselor education student growth through the
application of active learning principles. In addition,
Case, Bauder
& Simmons (2001) identified three specific formats involved in
web-based instruction. The first category pertains to text and
graphics, such as the posting of syllabi and readings. The second
design involves student in work and feedback, such as test taking
and exercises. Multimodal interactivity is the third format
described. This plan allows for the incorporation of audio and
video. Placing such instructional material on the web can facilitate
student learning and cross sharing among professionals. The latter
advantage is supported by Krantz & Eagley (1996) who stated that the
posting of tutorials on the web assist particular students in a
class and allow instructors to take advantage of the expertise of
other professionals in their field.
A
few studies have also focused on a decision-making process in the
use of technology in teaching. In their fundamental article,
Case,
et al. (2001) addressed a series of key questions to consider in the
decision-making process of using web-based instruction in higher
education. These questions include defining a rationale for use of
the Web, examination the advantages and disadvantages of its use,
exploration of the pedagogical style and content underlying this
instruction, consideration of the target audience, and review of
available resources such as academic policy and support, and
physical and financial costs.
Kirby (1997) further defined eight
rules to follow in the development of Web-based training, including
an awareness of user needs, defined learning objectives, and
internal and external resources; an analysis of the setting, learner
types, knowledge and abilities; and testing, updating, expansion and
evaluation of the instruction. Another crucial consideration in the
use of technology in instruction is that of maintaining focus on the
guiding principle that it is a vehicle to engage students in an
active learning process, not an end in and of itself.
It
is important that counselor educators review these preliminary
considerations prior to their utilization of technology in their
instructional efforts. Another matter which merits thought is that
of the ethical standards and guidelines associated with the use of
technology in the counseling field. In particular, issues such as
confidentiality, informed consent and emergency response issues must
be considered (Watson, 2003). The National Board for Certified
Counselors has established standards for the ethical practice of Webcounseling (Remley & Herlihy, 2001), and the ACES {Association of
Counselor Educators & Supervisors} (1999a; 1999b) has set
forth specific postulates for use of technology in counselor
educator programs.
However, in reviewing the existing professional standards, no such
standards are detailed by the national professional organizations in
regard to on-line supervision.
While new technologies such as
videoconferencing and encryption may increase the security of
transmitted messages, there is always the chance that a breach of
confidentiality may occur due to the lack of security in this type
of communication (Remly & Herlihy, 2001). Sending personal
information on the web on non secure pages, hacking of files stored
on internet service provider computers, and stealing of passwords
are all areas of concern in using the internet (Pachis, Rettman, &
Gotthoffer, 2001). In addition, the ethical concerns expressed by
Wilson, Jencius & Duncan, 1997 in relation to internet counseling,
have many parallel implications for the use of technology in the
supervision of counseling interns. There is no reliable method of
for ensuring the quality of supervision services offered, evaluating
the competence of the supervision provider, or regulate the type of
supervisory given to counseling interns. It is crucial that
attention is paid to this fundamental counseling area, i.e.,
supervision, as the use of technology becomes more commonplace and
expected, in order that the quality of training and service delivery
is maintained.
Technology & Supervision
Early research in this area addressed the ability of
supervisors to give feedback to their students. Many ‘live
observations’ and live supervision’ models have been discussed.
Through the use of the ‘Bug-in- the- Ear’ (Baum & Lane, 1976) and
dual-channel recording of audio (Smith, 1984), supervisors were able
to maintain some degree of control over the counseling session of
their students while they were in process.
Froehle (1984), utilized
bio-feedback, audio and video recordings, and self-report records,
to train counseling supervisees. Additional, less intrusive means of
supervisor feedback have since been developed.
Neukrug (1991)
discussed the use of a monitor in sessions, which allows for the
sending of text messages to supervisees, as a means of sharing
suggestions to supervisees. This process eliminates the need for
supervisor interruptions, and the need for headphones. Another long
standing training, albeit, simplistic tool in counselor education
programs for the purpose of supervisory feedback is that of
videotaping (Campbell, Lison, Borsook, Hoover & Arnold, 1995;
Pedersen, 1995;
Spruill, 1994). Through this means, supervisees
audio (visual) tape a counseling session with a client/student,
review and analyze the strengths and deficits of the tape, and
present it to peers and supervisors for constructive criticism.
Even more sophisticated technological efforts have emerged in the
last decade regarding the training of counselor educators in regard
to their field work. The ‘Group Support System’, developed by
Gale,
Dotson, Huber, Nagireddy, Manders, Young & Carter (1995), is an
electronic dialogue which allows class members to brainstorm about a
client and share feedback on clinical videotapes, preserving the
anonymity of the responders. In a more recent publication, entitled
‘Cyberspace: New Place for Counselor Supervision’ (Myrick & Sabella,
1995),
the use of e-mail to gain feedback by
student interns in the field was further addressed. Specifically,
supervisees were asked to give a brief description of the case,
including presenting problems, referral source, observed behaviors
and interventions attempted. Concern or questions were then posed to
the supervisor. Most recently,
Baltimore and Crutchfield (2003)
developed an interactive CD-ROM clinical supervisor training
program. In this program, a comprehensive supervision course, in
which issues such as supervision models, the relationship, process
and practice, evaluation, and ethics and legalities, are addressed.
This research is suggestive of advances made in the counseling field
in regard to the use of technology in the supervision field. In
spite of this progress made, the use of the Internet, and even
teleconferencing, for supervision purposes, remain underutilized.
Technological growth in the field of supervision needs to continue.
As Watson (2003) stated, in an overview of computer-assisted
supervision, many tools such as computer-assisted live supervision,
chat rooms and real-time communication, videoconferencing, and
electronic mail, exist which can expand the field of supervision,
and allowing for more versatility and flexibility in the process.
Such use of ‘cybersupervision’ will allow more students to be
reached, and faculty and facilities may be more effectively utilized
(Tyler & Sabella, 2004). The aforementioned interactive supervision
course is a major step in this direction. Ongoing work is needed,
however, in the area of field training courses, whereby graduate
interns are working in the community, and being supervised both on
site and on campus, are further needed. In the following section,
the use of WebCT in conjunction with clinical supervision of
counselor trainees, and its advantages and disadvantages, are
shared.
WebCT & Supervision
The use of WebCT may be utilized a number of ways to facilitate
supervisee growth and development throughout the clinical training
process. Accredited counselor education programs require various
clinical experiences in the field, as well as individual and group
supervision. Additional important components of this supervision
process are the ability of faculty supervisees to network and
communicate with supervisors in the field, and stay current in
regard to the supervision literature. Suggestions as to how WebCT
may be incorporated into field training courses, as well as the
strengths and shortcomings, are described.
Uses
WebCT may be used in the following manner in the course of the
supervision of counseling interns:
·
Posting of course syllabi and calendar.
This allows for unity of communication, and the advanced preparation
of interns by the first day of field classes, and the supervisory
process.
·
Posting of the Field Training Handbook. By posting this
important document, supervisees and supervisors, as well as clinical
instructors, have access to supervisory requirements, in terms of
supervisor qualifications, supervision experiences, and associated
evaluations forms. Clarity as to the roles of the supervisor, as
well as objectives to be achieved, is uniformly communicated, and
evaluation means are easily accessed and downloaded. This also
allows for current updates to be made and communicated.
·
Posting of supervision seminar topics and relevant readings
(e.g., journal articles; e-books). This feature permits both
interns and their supervisors to have access to current, ‘state of
the art’ information in the supervision field. Not only does it
provide a vehicle of continuing education for all parties, but
provides continuity in training.
·
Access to many sources of information, such as listed on the
home pages of ACA, NBCC, and CACREP (Remley & Herlihy, 2001), as
well as a myriad of mental health resources (Grohol, 2002/2003).
·
Submission and review of intern journals (logs of internship
hours and reflections). By submitting and reviewing journals via
WebCT, a consistent, ongoing tracking of field hours may be
maintained (as opposed to a single or dual submission of hard copies
of log hours at the midterm and final points of evaluation). This
permits all parties to monitor both the time invested and activities
completed by interns on site. In addition, feedback to supervisory
experiences may be given on an ongoing basis to facilitate content
and process discussions, rather than the typical week turn around
for hard copy class journals.
·
Management of supervisor-intern dialogues through the use of
discussion threads and/or chat room (real time) options. These
ongoing dialogues may enhance class and site discussions, and
facilitate the processing of cases.
·
Communication among students themselves and with supervisor
via email options. Trouble shooting, developmental issues, and
topical concerns, as well as the offering of support and monitoring
of service quality may be accomplished through this means.
·
Submission and review of E-portfolios. This process allows
for the continuity in communication of portfolio objectives,
submission ease, as well as supervisory review and feedback,
facilitation of changes, and distribution to potential employers in
an easy manner (Coyler & Howell, 2002).
·
Development of a generic on-site supervisor account. This
account enables discussions that include interns, on-site
supervisors and university based supervisors. Such discussions may
be content and/or process oriented.
·
Completion of student evaluations of supervisors and sites
via WebCT. This allows for both the ease of completion of such
evaluations, as well as the ability to establish a comprehensive
database of site information for future reference.
Strengths
Numerous strengths are associated with the utilization of WebCT in
conjunction with field training courses Benefits include the
following:
·
Organization of supervisee journals.
·
Ease of monitoring of hours and journal entries.
·
Enhancement of supervisee comfort in e-mail communication,
and prolongation of time to process and clarify supervision issues
(Stebnicki & Glover, 2001).
·
Stimulation of more creative and open discussion. Allowance
for all students, even the more timid, to be drawn into discussions,
limitation of more dominant students. (Barnard, 1997).
·
Utilization of a convenient, time efficient means for both
supervisor and supervisees involved in the process.
·
Enhancement of communication between University supervisors
and site supervisors.
·
Facilitation of discussions that are open to on-site
supervisors, supervisees, university supervisors and even additional
professionals and experts in the field may promote especially
valuable and creative professional interactions.
·
Ease of access for distance students (Smith, 2004),
especially those involved in programs which are non-traditional,
such as nights and weekends. Supervision potential for students in
rural areas or those with disabilities (Kanz, 2001).
·
Allowance for ‘anytime’, 24 hour a day learning opportunities
(Barnard, 1997).
·
Rapid updating of course materials and distribution to
students, and ability to reuse course materials (Smith, 2004).
·
Ease of administration of on-line tests and surveys, with
fast feedback to students (Smith, 2004).
·
Ability to expand and modify content, linking capabilities,
inclusion of true interactivity, and multi-media delivery potential
(Kirby, 1997;
Starr, 1997).
·
Posting of supervision schedules.
·
Enhancement of geographical locations whereby students may
seek internship placements (Coursol & Lewis, 2000).
·
Reduction of the need for physical plant and equipment
through the decreased use of classrooms and university computers
(Brooks, 1997).
·
Potential for superior learning opportunities beyond face to
face instruction which occurs in the classroom
(Hiltz, 1988; 1994 and Wells, 1990, as
cited in Case et al., 2001).
Shortcomings
In
spite of the many strengths associated with the use of WebCt in the
clinical supervision of students, many shortcomings also exist.
These limitations include:
·
Development of supervision WebCT and monitoring may be time
consuming. Requirement of more time by teachers to prepare
materials, guide student discussion, and answer queries, and respond
to e-mail communications (Barnard, 1997;
Smith, 2004).
·
Existence of potential boundary and confidentiality problems
specifically in ChatRoom discussions.
·
Format of on-line supervision is one-dimensional (i.e.,
lacking in affective and nonverbal nuances), thereby leaving the
instructor unaware of student responses in terms of understanding
and participation, increasing the possibility that students miss
instructor content emphasis, and perhaps slowing the
instructor-student relationship due to an absence of eye contact
(Case, et al., 2001). This lack of non-verbal cues can also lead to
misinterpretation of feedback given to supervisees, as well as lack
of sensitivity to multi-cultural issues.
·
Participation requires access to appropriate computers and
networks (Smith, 2004).
·
Potential for security breaches and hacking pose concerns.
·
Elongation of student study time and expansion of student
costs through the need to acquire appropriate equipment, an account,
and software, and utilization of the software and e-mail (Case et
al., 2001).
·
Extension of faculty time in e-mail review of messages;
difficulty in keeping track of work submitted in a timely fashion
via the e-mail process.
·
Obtainment of information which is erroneous, or unauthentic
(Brooks, 1997).
·
Creation of problems around copyright issues
(Starr, 1997).
Distribution unintentionally/intentionally of material created by
the instructor to students beyond and by the enrolled supervisees
(Case et al., 2001). Fragmentation in instruction, and
breakdown of faculty-supervisee relationships (Case et al., 2001).
·
Break-down in and slowness of computer equipment; associated
costs in purchasing, repairing and updating (Hildebrand, 1995;
Kirby, 1997;
Mingle, 1995, as cited
Case et al., 2001; 1995;
Starr, 1997).
·
Emphasis and focus shifting to the technological paradigm as
opposed to the supervision process.
·
Motivation and competency of supervisors and supervisees in
technology utilization.
·
All of the ethical considerations previously discussed,
especially in regard to potential breaches of confidentiality, and
concerns regarding the quality of supervisor feedback, competence
and credentials.
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Authors' Biography
Dr. Barbara Trolley is an assistant professor in
the Counselor Education Program at St. Bonaventure University.
She is the current editor of the New York State School
Counseling Journal. She may be reached at:
btrolley@sbu.edu
Dr. Alan Silliker is an associate professor in the
Counselor Education Program at St. Bonaventure University. Dr.
Silliker is a past program chair, and is interested in Career
Counseling. He may be reached at:
silliker@sbu.edu
