The
needs of students and professionals in the counseling profession are
different from previous generations, and educators and practitioners are
realizing that traditional methods of teaching are no longer sufficient
to challenge all students (Hayes, 1999). Students have different
learning modalities found in the areas of general skills, aptitude, and
information processing (Johnson & Aragon, 2003), and differences
specific to learning and instruction can be found in intelligence,
cognitive controls, cognitive styles, learning styles, personality
types, and prior knowledge (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993). It is
important that research is utilized to identify the most effective
training and teaching approaches for the development of knowledge and
skills of students (Hayes, Taub, Robinson, & Sivo, 2003). Granello and
Hazler (1998) state “it is time for the profession to take a more formal
stance and give more emphasis to the process of teaching, rather than
just the content” (p. 103). According to Hayes (1999), educators must
realize the importance of how students learn, considering taxonomically
higher levels of learning. Not only must students recognize and have
knowledge of skills, but they must be able to apply, synthesize, and
evaluate skills and client outcomes. One way educators in the field of
counseling are accommodating the different learning styles of individual
students is to use a variety of training approaches, ranging from
didactic to experiential to computer-assisted (Cairo & Kanner, 1984;
Hayes, Taub, Robinson, & Sivo, 2003; Hoffman & Water, 1982; Karper,
Robinson, & Kehoe-Casado, 2005; Lawton & Gerschner, 1982).
The use of computer and technology in classroom teaching has widely
increased across the field of counseling and counselor training (Lee &
Pulvino, 1998). Many programs that prepare counselors have integrated
this medium into their delivery of instruction. Research has shown that
the use of computer-assisted instruction has proven to be very effective
in classrooms across many disciplines (Morrell,
1992; Rota, 1981; Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980) and the
potential benefits from computer-based capabilities are too great for
educators to ignore. Benefits from this medium should be seen as
continuous efforts to improve professional practices, teaching, and
services. This article examines some of the technological approaches
used in counselor preparation programs today.
Engen, Finken, Luschei, and Kenney
(1994) state “it is the task of counselor educators to
continue to improve instruction in training counselors and other helping
professionals” (p. 284).
Computer-Assisted Instruction
The use of computers in counseling is not a totally new concept. In the
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the counseling profession used computer
applications to train counselors in skill development. Most of the
applications to train counselors dealt with computers programs that
could generate empathetic responses (e.g., Client 1, ELIZA, PLATO DCS,
MORTON) (Hinkle,
1992; Lichtenberg, Hummel & Shaffer, 1984; Sampson 1984; Wagman & Kerber,
1984).
However in the 21st century, more of a focus has been placed
on the use of computers and technology as teaching tools. According to
Hayes & Robinson (2000), computer-assisted instruction is an approach to
complement and supplement traditional methods of teaching. It is not
intended to supplant or replace teachers and instructors but to serve as
a tool to actively engage and stimulate students by enhancing the
learning process. Computer-assisted instruction is defined as
the use of computer-based automated presentation of content by way of
interactive computer simulation, computer-assisted supervision,
technology-based distance learning, video technology, including the use
of quick-time video clips of counseling sessions, CD-Rom, and laser
discs of popular movies demonstrating specific behavioral situations and
counseling techniques (Hayes, Taub, Robinson, & Sivo, 2003)
Interactive Computer Simulation
Interactive computer simulation is the process of exposing users to
real-life situations, replicating the essential characteristics of the
therapeutic process that are necessary for training students and
professionals in behavior health (Harré &Lamb, 1983; Casey, 1999).
Users practice therapeutic skills with immediate feedback being received
as to their effect. The use of computer-assisted simulation as a method
of teaching counseling skills has been beneficial as an effective
training tool in counselor education (Fong, Rosen, Wong, D, & Kaplan,
1993; Lichtenburg et al., 1984; Sharf, & Lucas, 1993; Wagman & Keber,
1984). The counseling profession has been using computer simulations
for many years.
Educators in the field of counseling used computer simulation
applications that generated empathetic responses (e.g., Client 1, ELIZA,
PLATO DCS, MORTON) to train counselors in skill development (Hinkle,
1992; Lichtenberg, Hummel & Shaffer, 1984; Sampson 1984; Wagman & Kerber,
1984). Phillips (1984) suggests that computers have the ability to
contribute to learning tasks in different areas. Also, the capabilities
of a computer to facilitate skill acquisition lie primarily in two
areas. “A computer can be programmed to present the skill to be learned
in the programmed format which involves a sequence of didactic
presentation (oral or written description and analysis of the skill
under study), modeling (observation of positive and negative examples
undertaken by the student, an expert, or a fellow student), trial and
rehearsal (typically conducted with a student partner or with a client
in supervised practice)” (p. 188). Phillip adds that this didactic
presentation could be followed by modeling skills in practice and
presentation of situational stimuli in which the use of the skill is
required.
The use of interactive laserdisc technology is another way the
counseling profession utilizes computer-assisted instruction. According
to Engen, Finken, Luschei, and Kenney (1994), this approach provided
realistic situations to which students reacted as they deal with
micro-counseling skills. Specifically, four simulated counseling
experiences were developed and recorded on videotape and videodiscs.
Engen, Finken, Luschei and Kenney (1994) expressed that “Learning
activities, implemented using HyperCard, provided opportunities for
students to observe, identify, practice, and evaluate a variety of
microcounseling skills” (p. 283).
The use of this computer simulation has not been implemented as widely
and rapidly in the field of counseling as compared to other
disciplines. Although interactive computer simulation has greatly
increased the effectiveness of training counselors in skill development
(Casey, 1999), some professionals in the field of counseling have raised
concerns as to this medium. Casey (1999) cites several reasons why
counselor training has lagged other disciplines in interactive
simulation development, ranging from simulation of human behavior not
lending itself to discrete categories such as values and nonverbal cues
to the rapid changing hardware industry. Further, showing a causal link
between counseling skills and the impact on client outcomes is often
colluded by the complexity of human behavior variables that are
extraneous to the counseling invention.
As stated earlier, some counseling professionals have concerns about the
use of interactive computer-simulation, focusing on the development of
relationship building skills. Building relationships is one of the most
salient aspects of the therapeutic process. Many professionals in
counseling are concerned with the fact that the use of computers, such
as computer simulation, may deny the student-in-training the opportunity
to develop relationship-building skills if this is the only method of
teaching being received by the student (Lambert, 1988; Litchenberg,
1984; Watjen, 1984). Although computer simulation has been proven to be
an effective method in training individuals, educators and professionals
fear students may not develop the necessary skills in building effective
relationships with clients if students are not exposed to clinical
experiences with face-to-face clients (Wagman & Kerber, 1984).
Interactive computer-assisted simulation would be particularly effective
in pre-practica micro-skills training that is subsequently followed with
real life client training.
Video Technology
The use of video technology offers a means of providing an
effective approach for counselor skills training. In order to enhance
learning, counselor educators use video technology to assist students in
analyzing therapeutic relationships. As part of the learning process,
students view videotapes of counseling sessions and answer questions
about the process, the verbal and non-verbal behaviors of the clients
and counselor, the relationship, and the skills used by the counselors.
In addition, students are able to evaluate the skills of the counselor
by viewing the session.
Counselor educators also use videos and DVDs (Digital Video
Disc) of popular movies to assist students in recognizing specific
behaviors illustrated by the actors in the films. The use of video
technology can also be beneficial in assisting educators evaluate the
counseling skills of students and professionals. In addition,
professionals can videotape their counseling sessions and observe their
skills and techniques to ensure the techniques are appropriate and
effective with their clients.
Computer-Assisted Supervision
A
critical component of training students and professionals in the field
of counseling is the evaluation of counselor skills. An important
element of supervision is the ability of the supervisor to evaluate
trainees and professionals and to provide meaningful, concrete, and
thorough feedback that can be integrated in future counseling
sessions. According to Bernard and Goodyear (1998), supervision is “an
intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession to a more
junior member or members of that same profession. This relationship is
evaluative, extends over time, and has the simultaneous purposes of
enhancing the professional functioning of the more junior person(s),
monitoring the quality of professional services offered to the client(s)
she, he, or they see(s), and serving as a gatekeeper of those who are to
enter the particular profession” (p. 6). In live supervision the
supervisor cannot intervene, however in computer-assisted live
supervision, supervisors have the opportunity to redirect the session if
needed, providing immediate feedback (Border & Leddick, 1987).
According to Watson (2003), computer-based technologies offer several
possibilities for supervisors today, such as facilitating more efficient
communication when proximity is an issue. Many professionals are not
able to receive supervision due to living in rural areas and not being
able to locate a licensed, qualified clinical supervisor.
Computer-assisted supervision has afforded many professionals the
opportunity to receive supervision. In the counseling profession, the
use of computer-assisted supervision is becoming an effective method in
counselor skills training (Neukrug, 1991).
Watson (2003) describes computer-assisted supervision as a “screen being
placed in the therapy room where it can be viewed by the counselor and
the supervisor, but not the client. Supervisors can position themselves
behind a two-way mirror and observe a session. When they want to
interject they could simply type on a keyboard what it is they are
suggesting. Students can view the feedback while in the follow up of
the session and respond accordingly. The student can integrate
supervisor or peer feedback into their counseling repertoire” (p. 3).
Cybersupervision is another beneficial approach where videoconferencing
is an integral part of the process. Supervisors are able to view
counseling sessions of clients and counselors from various locations.
In order to effectively evaluate the skills of the student or
professional, supervisors are able to monitor verbal and nonverbal
behavior of both the client and counselor. Immediately following the
session or at a later time, supervisors have the opportunity to provide
feedback to the counselor via videoconferencing. Cybersupervision is a
very powerful tool that allows much flexibility in the supervision
process. According to Watson (2003), “computer-based approaches should
not be used for their attractiveness and accessibility alone. They must
legitimately add to the supervision experience for the supervisee to be
truly effective” (p. 8).
Web-Based Instruction
Since the inception of web-based instruction (WBI), the face of
education has significantly changed and the use of this tool has greatly
enhanced instruction. Although many disciplines have completely embraced
WBI, the counseling profession has not yet realized the potential of
this media. Khan (2000) defines WBI as a “hypermedia-based
instructional program that utilizes the attributes and resources of the
World Wide Web to create a meaningful learning environment where
learning is fostered and supported” (p. 17). WBI provides students and
professionals many opportunities, such as unlimited access of
information and resources from any location, the ability to deliver the
instruction in a format that addresses all students’ learning
modalities, and the ability to enroll in courses from anywhere in the
world. Through the use of web-based instruction, students have the
opportunity to interact with each other, instructors, and experts.
Educators are able to provide support, feedback, and guidance through
both synchronous (i.e., conferencing tools) and asynchronous
communications (e.g., E-mail, listserv) (Khan, 2000).
Although WBI is cost effective for all involved, designing and
developing web sites to deliver WBI is very time consuming. Educators
must be provided with the resources, technical support, and
administrative support necessary to succeed. The rapid growth of this
medium has raised concerns regarding the quality of online courses.
Institutions of higher education, professional associations, and
accrediting agencies must provide specific guidelines so that WBI
maintains its quality and integrity.
Summary
Technology is currently being used in counselor preparation programs in
a variety of ways. These technological methods are being developed and
implemented daily and are designed to enhance and simulate the lecture,
didactic and experiential approaches. Computer and technology in
teaching have greatly increased in recent years and many educators are
integrating this media into the delivery of instruction, such as
distance education (McFadden, 2000; McIsaac &
Blocher, 1998; Schneider, Wantz, Rice, & Long, 2005), video technology (Taverner,
Dodding, & White, 2000) and web-based instruction (Berge, 1998; Gillani,
1998; Johnson, 1998; Khan, 1998). In addition, computer usage in
counselor preparation has also increased and has provided educators with
different methods of teaching students (Engen, Finken, Luschei, &
Kenney, 1994; Hayes, & Robinson, 2000; Hayes, Taub, Robinson, & Sivo,
2003; Karper, Robinson, Casado-Kehoe, 2005; Phillips, 1984).
Concerns regarding the use of technology and computers in
training counselors have been raised.
Ethical issues in the use of technology range from confidentiality to
informed consent. In order to maximize the effectiveness of the
learning experience, counselor educators must use computers and
technology appropriately (Hayes, 1999). Counselors are urged to always
consult their professional association’s codes of ethics when using
computer and technology in any counseling situation. In order to
consider the appropriate and inappropriate usage of technology in
counseling, this practice is strongly recommended.
Many professional associations are in the process of developing and/or
adopting guidelines and standards regarding online counseling and the
use of technology in training counselors. These professional
associations include the American Psychological Association (APA), the
National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC), the Council for the
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP),
International Society for Mental Health Online (ISMHO), Association for
Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES), and the American Mental
Health Counselors Association (AMHCA). Professional associations must
provide guidance to students and professionals regarding the use of
computers in counseling (Engels, Caulum, Sampson, 1984; Sampson & Loesch,
1985; Wilcoxon, 1992). These organizations must establish protocol,
tasks forces, committees, policies, procedures, operational standards
and definitions.
Students and professionals in the counseling profession must always
inform their clients of all aspects of the counseling process, including
getting permission to audiotape and videotape sessions. Clients must
also be informed of the risks and benefits of the process, limits of
confidentiality, including who has access to client information.
Technological teaching approaches, such as computer-assisted
instruction, have been proven to be beneficial in counseling skill
development of trainees (Hayes, Taub, Robinson, & Sivo, 2003), however,
what do students’ think about this approach? Counselor trainees’
attitudes toward computer-assisted instruction must be strongly
considered before educators integrate this approach into the instruction
delivery model. “Students’ attitudes toward computer-based instruction
have been positive at all levels-elementary school, junior high school,
high school, and college” (Clements, 1991, p.29). Several studies
have assessed students’ attitudes toward computer-assisted instruction
(Berry, Srebalus, Cromer, & Takacs, 2006; Brewster, 1996; Clements,
1981; Graham, 1998; Hayes & Robinson, 2000; Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen,
1980). In order to meet the needs of students and to be effective in
using computer-assisted instruction, Hayes (1999) suggested that
educators assess the attitudes of students toward technology. The
decision to use computer-assisted instruction should be based on the
needs of the students and the students’ different learning modalities,
as well as goals and objectives of instructor. Counselor educators
should consider the developmental levels of students and
gradual/sequential skill promotion.
Research studies focusing on student’s attitudes toward computers and
computer-assisted instruction have found that individuals have a
favorable attitude toward computers. These studies indicated that
computers increased creativity and motivation (Hayes & Robinson, 2000;
Kulik et al., 1980, Clement, 1981; Lawton & Gerschner, 1982). According
to Hayes and Robinson (2000), computers help increase productivity in
the educational process and help to individualize instruction, to better
meet the needs of particular students.
In addition, training and support are necessary in order to use
computer-assisted instruction. It is not necessary for educators in the
field of counseling to be skilled in computer programming but educators
need be comfortable and able to use technology in order to effectively
deliver the instruction to counselor trainees. Engel, Caulum, and
Sampson (1984) state that “critical for counselor educators is the need
to help aspiring professionals and those in the field to anticipate
relevant areas of ethical concern so that they may appropriately,
confidently, and effectively, use the potential strengths computers
bring to our profession” (p. 202).
Engel, Caulum, and Sampson (1984) state that the potential benefits from
computer-based capabilities are too great for counselor educators to
ignore. Computer capabilities related to counselor education should be
seen as continuous efforts to improve professional practices, teaching,
services, and research by counselor educators. Engel et al. suggest
“that familiarity with the benefits of computers should be a goal of
professional growth” (p. 196).
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Author's Biography
Grant Hayes, PhD can be reached at:
PO Box 161250, College of Education, University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida 32816-1250
407-823-2835
ghayes@mail.ucf.edu
