Abstract
This article reviews the literature
regarding the use of technology in teaching and counselor education, as
well as its effectiveness. It also discusses implications for counselor
educators and the need for more research in this area.
Today, the use of computers and technology
in the classroom has greatly increased. An area of education in which the
use of technology is becoming more apparent is classroom teaching;
therefore, research studies focusing on this area are of major importance
to the field. Many teachers and other educators are integrating the use
of technology into the delivery of instruction, such as distance education
(McIsaac & Blocher, 1998),
the internet (Gray, 1998;
Weins & Gunter, 1998) and web-based instruction (Berge,
1998; Gillani, 1998; Johnson, 1998; Khan, 1998).
A specific area
in which computers and technology are being integrated is in the field
of counselor education.The National
Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC) and the Council for the Accreditation
of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), as well as the
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) are in the process
of developing and/or adopting guidelines and standards regarding online
counseling and the use of technology in training counselors. Most of the
research regarding the use of technology in counselor education has concentrated
primarily on computer-assisted guidance systems and computers in counseling
(e.g., Client 1, ELIZA, PLATO DCS, MORTON) (Hinkle,
1992; Lichtenberg, Hummel & Shaffer, 1984; Sampson 1984; Wagman &
Kerber, 1984). Educators have realized that the needs of the students
of today's society are quite different from previous generations and many
of the traditional methods of teaching no longer challenge all students.
Since becoming aware of this concept, educators have adopted a variety
of teaching approaches ranging from didactic/experiential to computer-assisted
instruction (Cairo & Kanner,
1984; Hoffman & Water, 1982; Lawton & Gerschner, 1982). “Students
have different learning modalities, and it is important that research identify
the most effective teaching approaches for the development of knowledge
and skills” (Hayes and Robinson,
in press). Not only what students learn but also how
they learn it becomes important to educators.
Over
the years there have been some controversial ethical issues surrounding
technology in counseling, such as using computers to generate empathetic
responses.Building relationships
is probably one of the most salient aspects of the counseling process,
and many counseling professionals are concerned that the use of computers
may deny the client and students-in-training the opportunity to develop
relationship skills (Lambert,
1988; Litchenberg, 1984; Watjen, 1984).Many
counselors fear that the ability to build relationships may be lost, bringing
about an ethical dilemma (Wagman
& Kerber, 1984).There is
a critical need for professional organizations to prepare clear guidelines
regarding the use of computers in counseling (Engels,
Caulum, Sampson, 1984; Sampson & Loesch, 1985; Wilcoxon,
1992).In addition, educators
must also be aware of the appropriate usage of computers in counselor education
to maximize the effectiveness of the learning experience.
It
should be noted that the purpose of this review is to examine the use of
computer-assisted instruction in teaching as a supplement to traditional
methods of instruction.This method
is not meant to replace, in whole or part, traditional instruction or its
providers but to be used as an additional element (Edwards,
Norton, Taylor, Weiss, & Dusseldorp, 1975).
History of Computer-Assisted Instruction
Hall
(1971) stated that the earliest attempts to automate instruction were
initiated by Sidney Pressey in the early 1900s and by B. F. Skinner in
1954.“Both Pressey and Skinner developed
techniques of administering instructional materials to students by means
of teaching machines or programmed text” (p. 629).The
programmed text and teaching machines were very limited in their ability
to adapt to individual differences among students or to provide a stimulating,
responsive environment for students. “The obvious limitations of these
devices prompted investigation of applying computers to instructional tasks”
(p. 629).
According to Suppes
and Macken (1978), members of the computer industry were also among
the earliest to use computer-assisted instruction.In
the late 1950s, the computer industry used computer-assisted instruction
to train its own personnel by linking typewriters and teletypes terminals
to computers.Instructional modules
were presented to the learners who then responded with one-syllable
responses.The programming language
for these modules was complicated and quite difficult for lay people
to learn.Because of the complexity
of the programming language, ways of simplifying such programming were
explored (Suppes & Macken,
1978).
By
1960, International Business Machines (IBM) developed the first computer-assisted
author language, Coursewriter I.Educators
were then able to directly program their curriculum ideas into the system
(Suppes & Macken, 1978).According
to Hall (1971), “One of
the basic problems in the early development of computer-assisted instruction
was that most systems were built around modified business computers and
terminal devices” (p. 629).
In
1963, a computer-assisted instruction research project began at Stanford
University.The Institute for Mathematical
Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS) at Stanford University developed
an instructional mathematical program for elementary students.The
first instructional program consisted of a tutorial curriculum in elementary mathematical
logic.The program was developed
and tested in the spring of 1964.The
study consisted of 41 fourth graders who were given daily arithmetic drill-practice
lessons in their classroom.These
lessons were given on a teletype machine that was connected to the Institute's
computer by telephone lines (Suppes
& Macken, 1978).
Recognizing the
innovative accomplishments made by the computer industry in the late 1950s
and early 1960s, “Farsighted educators began dreaming about a computer
agein higher education” (p. 525) (Kulik,
Kulik, & Cohen, 1980).In
1966, IBM developed the first computer system specifically for instructional
purposes, the 1500 Instructional System.Hall
(1971) pointed out that computer-assisted programs before the mid-1960s
were built around modified business computers and terminals and were not
appropriate for instructional purposes.The
programs and systems developed in the early 1950s and 1960s used an electric
typewriter or a teletype terminal through which students received information
from the computer.The student, in
turn, transmitted information to the computer.After
the development of the 1500 Instructional System, most systems utilized
television screens as the major display for students.Students
fed responses to the program or system by the use of a typewriter keyboard.The
use of random-access audio, playback/record capability, and random-access
image projectors, all under program control, accompanied
more complete instructional systems (Hall,
1971).
During
the 1960s the University of Illinois engaged in a computer-assisted project,
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations), in connection
with Control Data Corporation and the National Science Foundation (Alderman,
Appel & Murphy, 1978; Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980; Magidson, 1978;
Suppes & Macken, 1978).PLATO
was one of the largest and perhaps most sophisticated computer systems
designed for education.This system
supported approximately 1000 terminals at different locations within the
United States and abroad and provided each site with access to a central
library of lessons (Alderman
et al., 1978; Kulik et al., 1980; Magidson, 1978; Suppes & Macken,
1978).
In
1972, the Mitre Corporation of Bedford, Massachusetts and C. Victor Bunderson
and associates at Brigham Young University developed the Time-Shared, Interactive,
Computer-Controlled, Information Television (TICCIT).The
TICCIT combined mini-computers and television receivers in an instructional
system with the display capabilities of color televisions.The
aim of the TICCIT program was to provide a complete and independent alternative
to entire college courses in selected subjects (Kulik
et al., 1980; Suppes & Macken, 1978).Suppes
and Macken (1978) noted that the purpose of the TICCIT system was to
use mini-computers and television technology to deliver computer-assisted
lessons and educational programs in English and mathematics to community
college students.The TICCIT lesson
was displayed on a color television screen connected to
a keyboard and a local computer where students could respond.One
TICCIT system could serve 128 terminals (Kulik
et al., 1980).Rota (1981) stated
the TICCIT system lessons were developed and designed by an assembled team
of experts; whereas, the PLATO lessons were designed by teachers.
According
to Rota (1981), "The PLATO
and TICCITprojects succeeded in
introducing effective computer-assisted systems into schools.Each
project led to the development and reliable operation of computer systems
dedicated to instruction.The PLATO
system supported hundreds of active terminals, and it gave each site a
powerful tool for teaching.The TICCIT
system had the display capabilities of television and employed an innovative
instructional design.Schools accepted
these systems as additional resources for promoting student learning and
as a part of the approved curriculum” (p. 14).
In
addition, Kulik, Kulik, and
Cohen (1980) stated that the evaluations of PLATO and TICCIT gave educators
additional perspectives on computer-based college teaching and
demonstrated that this teaching approach would be accepted in institutions
of higher education as an additional resource for promoting student learning.
According
to Rota (1981), the PLATO
and TICCIT systems opened the gateway in the potential of a technology
market in education.In addition,
these two college-based, teaching programs were but two
of many approaches that followed.
In
the early 1970s, computer-assisted instruction was being implemented in
different ways.A unique computer-assisted
instruction program, Computer-Assisted Remediation and Evaluation (CARE),
was designed to help classroom teachers identify children with particular
mental handicaps that would adversely affect their academic progress.The
CARE project was a self-contained college level course.The
special feature of this computer-assisted instruction program was the method
of dissemination.A mobile CAI unit
was driven to teachers who requested the program.By
1972, the unit served teachers in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington,
D.C. (Suppes & Macken,
1978).
In
1975, the Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC) was developed to offer
a large variety of courses for elementary through junior college students.The
CCC CAI system consisted of an instructional computer that provided individualized
lessons to as many as 96 teletype terminals simultaneously.The
computer and terminal were located at the school site, and neighboring
sites were then linked to the computer via telephone lines (Suppes
& Mackens, 1978).
Recently,
the use of technology in education and classroom teaching has increased
across a variety of disciplines.In
many cases, the use of multimedia instruction has been proven to be effective
(Morrell, 1992; Rota, 1981;
Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980). Specifically, there has also been
an increase in the use of technology in counselor education.Many
counselor educators are beginning to integrate this medium into their delivery
of instruction.
Computer-Assisted Instruction in
Counselor Education
The
use of interactive laserdisc technology was one way the field of counselor
education utilized computer-assisted instruction.According
to Engen, Finken, Luschei,
and Kenney (1994), this approach provided realistic situations
to which students reacted as they dealt with microcounseling skills.Specifically,
four simulated counseling experiences were developed and recorded on videotape
and videodiscs.Engen,
Finken, Luschei and Kenney (1994) expressed that “Learning activities,
implemented using HyperCard, provided opportunities for students to observe,
identify, practice, and evaluate a variety of microcounseling skills” (p.
283).
Hayes
and Robinson (in press) surveyed the attitudes of 44 counselor education
students after students completed a 15-week multimedia communication skills
course.Results indicated that students
responded favorably that computers help motivate students and increase
creativity.In addition, students
responded that computers help individualize instruction to better meet
needs of particular students.
According
to Phillips (1984), computers
have the ability to contribute to learning tasks in different areas.Phillips
(1984) stated that the capabilities of a computer to facilitate skill
acquisition lie primarily in two areas.“A
computer can be programmed to present the skill to be learned in the programmed
format” (p. 188) which involves a sequence of didactic presentation (oral
or written description and analysis of the skill under study), modeling
(observation of positive and negative examples undertaken by the student,
an expert, or a fellow student), trial and rehearsal (typically
conducted with a student partner or with a client in supervised practice)”
(p. 188).The author added that this
didactic presentation can be followed by modeling skills in practice and
presentation of situational stimuli in which the use of the skill is required.The
second area in which computers can be used, according to
Phillips
(1984), involved simulation as a method of skill development.This
method received considerable use by counselor educators
(e.g., Lichtenburg et al.,
1984; Wagman & Keber, 1984).
Conclusion
Multimedia instruction
is currently being used in a variety of ways across disciplines in elementary,
secondary and higher education.Strides
in the use of technology in teaching are developing, improving, and are
being implemented daily. From the research cited, the use multimedia instruction
has proven to be effective (Hayes
& Robinson, in press; Morrell, 1992, Waltz, 1984).Unfortunately,
to date there is not even a handful of empirical studies that address the
topic of the use of multimedia instruction in counselor education.It
seems, therefore, that this area offers many opportunities for research.
Further research focusing on the internet-based instruction, as well distance
learning, online counseling and attitudes of students and instructors when
using multimedia instruction are quite important and necessary for the
field.
There
are important implications for counselor educators when using technology.Hayes
and Robinson (in press) found that students have favorable attitudes
toward multimedia instructors, therefore a classroom environment utilizing
this instruction delivery method may be desirable to counselor educators.In
addition, training and support are necessary in order to use multimedia
instruction.It is not necessary
for counselor educators to be skilled in computer programming but they
need be comfortable and able to use technology in order to effectively
deliver the instruction to students.Counselor
educators are encouraged to explore opportunities for training in the use
of this powerful teaching approach.Counselors
are urged to always consult the American Counseling Association (ACA) and
the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) Codes of
Ethics when using technology in any counseling situation. In order to consider
the appropriate and inappropriate usage of technology in counseling, this
practice is strongly recommended.In
order to meet the needs of students and to be effective in using multimedia
instruction, it is suggested that counselor educators assess the attitudes
of students toward technology.It
seems that the decision to use multimedia instruction will be based on
the needs of the students and their different learning modalities, as well
as goals and objectives of instructors.Granello
and Hazler (1998) suggested “that it is time for the profession to
take a more formal stance and give more emphasis to the process of teaching,
rather than just the content” (p. 103)
Engel,
Caulum, and Sampson (1984) stated that the potential benefits from
computer-based capabilities are too great for counselor educators to ignore.Computer capabilities
related to counselor education should be seen as continuous efforts to
improve professional practices, teaching, services, and
research by counselor educators. Counselor Educators need not be skilled
at programming computers but must be able to positively exploit the use
of computers and related tools.As
for computer use in counselor education, the authors suggest “that familiarity
with the benefits of computers should be a goal of professional growth”
(p. 196).
Engen,
Finken, Luschei, and Kenney (1994) stated that “it is the task of counselor
educators to continue to improve instruction in training counselors and
other helping professionals” (p. 284).Computer
usage in counselor preparation has increased and has provided educators
with different methods of instructional delivery (Engen,
Finken, Luschei, & Kenney, 1994; Phillips, 1984).
Computer-assisted
instruction is an approach to complement and supplement traditional methods
of teaching.It is not intended to
supplant or replace teachers and instructors but to serve as a tool to
actively engage and stimulate students by enhancing the learning process
(Hayes & Robinson, in
press). There appears to be a significant interest in the use of computer-assisted
instruction. There is controversy as to ethical issues regarding the use
of technology in counseling and the use of computers to instruct students.In
addition, there are also concerns about programming and appropriate usage
of computers in the field of counseling.A
majority of the concern focuses around the concept of computer-assisted
counseling programs (e.g., ELIZA, CLIENT 1) and computers used as tutorial
with no student and teacher contact. Engel,
Caulum, and Sampson (1984) state that “critical for counselor educators
is the need to help aspiring professionals and those in the field to anticipate
relevant areas of ethical concern so that they may appropriately, confidently,
and effectively, use the potential strengths computers bring to our profession”
(p. 202).
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Author Biography
B. Grant Hayes, Ph.D. is
an Assistant Professor in the Department of Human Services and Wellness
at the University of Central Florida in Orlando, Florida. Correspondence
regarding this article should be sent to B. Grant Hayes, College of Education,
PO Box 161250, Orlando, Fl. 32816 or at GHayes7607@aol.com
© 1999 Department of Counseling
and Educational Leadership - Columbus State University
