McFadden (2000)

Introduction

Higher education institutions have invested heavily in telecommunications equipment and computers.Even though the counseling profession continues to develop Internet awareness and presence (Wilson, Jencius, & Duncan, 1997), instructional processes in counselor education have not changed significantly to take advantage of these technologies.And, while the mental health professional literature abounds with studies and commentaries on computer technology applications, counselor educators have yet to realize the implications of this media. Potential counseling applications include increased counseling services marketing options, diverse delivery modes to remote client locations, reduction of data collection costs for research, and increased formats for supervision and case conferencing (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997).
Internet proficiency and computer technology are requisite for meaningful counselor education participation in disciplinaryand interdisciplinary discourse. Increasingly, accreditation bodies (NCATE, ISTE) including counseling (Association for Counselor Education and Supervision--ACES, Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs--CACREP, National Board for Certified Counselors, etc.) and professional associations encourage faculty and student competencies in computer applications. Recently, counselor educators interested in the use and application of technology in counselor education and counseling developed two documents which delineate a set of technical competencies for counselor education students and a set of guidelines for online instruction. Developed by the ACES Technology Interest Network (1999), both documents have been endorsed by the ACES Executive Council are available online (http://www.auburn.edu/ccp/acestin). A set of web counseling standards has been issued by the National Board for Certified Counselors (McFadden & Jencius, 2000). To this extent, counselor educators have a professional obligation to examine computer technology applications (listservs, video-conferencing, CAI, and avatars) as well as the ethical implications of each application in both instructional and service delivery settings.
This manuscript traces the history of computer technologies, their applications in mental health settings, and suggests that transcultural counselor educators engage their students in the design of a case-based computer simulation. The avatar-focused simulation offers an unprecedented environment for experimentation in collaborative learning and expanding faculty-student interactions to synergistic cultural explorations (Holt et.al., 1998; Wheeler, Valacich, Alavi, & Vogel, 1999).

Distance Education & Learning
Distance education, as an instructional format, has been embraced by most nations of the world to the extent that approximately 7 million people get a virtual education each year (Dixon, 1996).Distance education resource materials and research studies are available for most countries and regions including: Australia (Castro, 1990; Plowman, 1999); China (Ding, 1994; Young, 1999); European nations (Hutchinson, 1999) and Austria (Lengauer, 1984);Canada (Beller & Or, 1998); the Middle East-- Israel (Beller & Or, 1998; Gouttman, 1982) and the Sudan (Elsiddig, 1993); Africa (Jenkins, 1989)--Ethiopia (Gupta, 1991), Kenya (Holmberg, 1985), and Zambia (Nyirenda, 1989); India (Plowman, 1999); and Latin America (Rumble, 1985).
Technology-based distance education is an increasingly important component of higher education pedagogy in the United States (Beller & Or, 1998; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Northrop, 1997; Schutte, 1997).As an example, governors of fourteen central and western states, not including California, and one U.S. territory are developing a virtual university called the Western Governors University (Beller & Or, 1998). This virtual university will have no campus and will rely heavily on computers and other technology such as interactive video to deliver instruction (National Center for Education Statistics, 1997). California with its Virtual University (CVU) has in excess of 1,600 on-line courses offered by 95 schools in the state's higher education systems (universities, state universities, and community colleges) and high-tech companies such as Sun Microsystems, Cisco Systems, Pacific Bell, and Oracle (Beller & Or, 1998).
In excess of 900 educational institutions in the United States offer full-degree programs employing combinations of Internet, satellite feeds, videoconferencing, cable television and other tele-communications-based technologies (LaRose, Gregg, & Eastin, 1998). The American Council on Education (ACE) has identified nearly 300 distance learning programs offered through various institutions, including prestigious schools such as Stanford University, University of Delaware, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue University, Duke University, etc. (Clarke, 1999). The University of Phoenix has one of the oldest distance learning centers in the United States (Beller & Or, 1998). LaRose, Gregg, and Eastin (1998) suggest that universities now vie to make the top ten on the 100 most wired list as published by ZDNet magazine.Examples of web-based courses may be found at the University of Minnesota (LaRose, Gregg, and Eastin, 1998), the New School for Social Research (Deloughry, 1996), and the SUNY Learning Network (Eastmond, 1998).
All states either have active distance education programs or participate in cooperatives and consortia to support distance education.Examples of such cooperatives and consortia include: (1) the Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications, a project of the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, and the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, which consists of twelve large state universities; (2) a partnership among 60 community colleges and 22 public television stations offer associate's degree programs through distance education telecourses, Going the Distance (National Center for Education Statistics, 1997); and (3) a regional compact in the southeastern portion of the United States, the Southern Regional Electronic Campus (Southern Region Education Board, 1999).
Distance learning collaborations also exist between postsecondary institutions and industries,in the United States and other countries.For the United States, the National Technological University (NTU) represents the consortial efforts of 35 major engineering colleges to deliver high quality instructional activities-continuing education and advanced degree programs-to 325 locations in the United States, serving more than 113 corporations and the military (Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, 1992).For Israel, the Open University of Israel and two companies, Gilat and Arel, established an interactive distance system which has received international recognition (Beller & Or, 1998).
The first nationally representative data about distance education course offerings of 2-year and 4-year higher education institutions, in the United States, were conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES).NCES used the Postsecondary Education Quick Information System (PEQIS). PEQIS surveys are designed to collect limited amounts of policy-relevant information (generally limited to two to three pages) on a quick turn-around basis from a previously recruited, nationally representative sample of postsecondary institutions.
The Fall 1995 survey acquired extensive data about distance education course offerings and characteristics, including the types of technologies used to deliver distance education courses; the sites to which such courses are directed; the percentage of institutions that offered distance education courses, at that time, and planned to offer such courses within the following three years; enrollment and completion rates; and factors impeding the initiation or expansion of course offerings. Survey data below has beenweighted to provide national estimates. Survey highlights include:

A third of higher education institutions offered distance education courses in Fall 1995 and another quarter planned to offer such courses in the next three years.
Public 4-year institutions offered 45 percent, public 2-year institutions 39 percent, and private 4-year institutions 16 percent of the distance education courses in 1994-95.
Half of the institutions that offered distance education courses in Fall 1995 offered 10 or fewer such courses in academic year 1994-95.
About half of the institutions that offered distance education courses in Fall 1995 directed such courses to student homes and thirty-nine percent of the institutions directed distance education courses to other branches of the institution and other college campuses.
Professionals seeking re-certification were targeted by thirty-nine percent of the institutions and other workers seeking skill updating or retraining were targeted by forty-nine percent of the institutions.
Increasing student access was an important goal for most distance education programs, with making courses available at convenient locations rated as very important by 82 percent of the institutions, and reducing time constraints for course taking rated as very important by 63 percent of institutions.
Among all institutions, including those with no future plans to offer distance education courses, factors frequently reported as keeping the institution from starting or expanding their distance education courses offerings to a major extent were program development costs (43 percent), limited technological infrastructure to support distance education (31 percent), and equipment failures and costs of maintaining equipment (23 percent). (National Center for Education Statistics, 1997, p.iii-v).
The Internet and World-Wide Web (WWW)
The Internet is best described as a vast network of independent computers (public and private) throughout the world.Connection to these computers via a modem or other connection (cable, satellite) allows an individual to participate simultaneously in a number of communication methods or programs: engaging in real-time electronic meetings called videoconferencing, sending and receiving email, conducting financial transactions viewing and creating Web pages, having discussions through Usenet, using chat rooms for real time text conversations, and talking tofriends and relatives around the world (Lillie, 1998; President's Information Technology Advisory Committee, 1998).Communications among networked computers is instantaneous, throughout the world, given the sender places the correct address on the document.The Internet serves as a host for a number of other programs such as e-mail, chat rooms, videoconferencing, audio channels, long-distance computing, file transfer, and Usenet newsgroups.
The World-Wide Web (WWW) or the Web is the most popular and widely used portion of the Internet because it has extensive pictures and graphics (Crossman, 1997).It ison the Internet where one finds, retrieves, and exchanges information.Information on the Web can be found in various formats such as documents (speeches, reports, news articles, library catalogs, biographies, etc),sounds, videos, pictures and interactive games that have been deposited by an individual, agency, corporation, library, educational institution, or governmental entity.The American Counseling Association (ACA) its 17 chartered divisions have web-sites.For example, the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development's (AMCD) site (http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/edhd/programs/AMCD) has information on publications and training standards of interest to counselors with a focus on racial and ethnic issues.

Counseling Listservs
Most professionals enjoy discussing contemporary and emergent issues with colleagues. While e-mail is the most utilized format for individual discussions, mail lists provide opportunities for vast numbers of individuals to join the discussion.Most mail lists are managed by the Listserv program and allow participants (subscribers) to attach their own e-mail address (Wilson, 1995) Listservs, either public or private, are designed to stimulate discussion and debate on a particular issue. A user must join a listserv to receive messages from and send messages to those on the list. Membership and access are controlled for those individuals utilizing a private listserv. Numerous mail lists for the counseling profession exist. Listservs allow counselors to discuss presenting problems from various worldview perspectives as well as obtain information on emergent resources. Two listsevs (CESNET-L for counselor educators and supervisors and COUNSGRADS for graduate students in counselor education) exemplify attempts to increase dialogue among the profession. In addition, Wilson (1995) provides a roster of numerous listservs relevant to counselor educators, practitioners, and trainees.

Listservs and Transcultural Counselor Education
As a powerful instructional tool for collaborative learning-- especially critical, reflective, and deliberative thinking processes (Holt et al, 1998; Simich-Dudgeon, 1998), listservs can expand student contextual understandings of culture (McFadden & Jencius, 2000) and myopism. Tele-communicated discussions promote equity among participants regardless of assertive, or physical, regional, and cultural differences (Forcier, 1996).Domestic or international multi-campus listservs, established by transcultural counselor educators, can provide forums for:

1.Counselors to gain ownership of issues as well as a deeper understanding of their own and others' perspectives and concerns (Baird, 1998; Das, 1995; Kleiber, Holt, & Swenson, 1995).
2.Counselor educators to design models for research and/or assessment measures that are conceptualized in the experiences of a particular culture embedded in a multicultural frame of reference (Quinn, 1993; Salinas, Marquez, & Leon,1995).
3.Counselor educators to develop course-based listservs for a myriad of projects including the assignment ofsimulation-based projects or design case studies which incorporate personal dimensions ofcultural- embedded activities (Giese, 1999; Henderson & Putt, 1993) and assess higher cognitive skills (Glenn, Koschmann, & Conlee, 1995; McLoughlin & Oliver, 1998).
4.Counselor educators and practitioners to increase international communication, exchange, collaboration (Anderson, 1998), and research options (Gaydosh, 1996; Stamm,1998).
5.Counselor supervisors to participate in discourse of counselor skills and techniques developed in response to the needs for counseling with a worldview perspective (Ancis, 1998; Ihle, 1998; McFadden, 1999) versus those that reflect Western ways of life and concepts.
6.Counselor trainees, via a course-based listserv, to develop skills for collecting, organizing, and integrating information; how to form and test clinical inferences; and how to plan, implement, and evaluate interventions (Myrick & Sabella, 1995; Stevens & Morris, 1998).

Resources exist to assist with establishment and management issues associated with atranscultural counselor education electronic study circle or listserv. A handbook designed by Kleiber, Holt, and Swenson (1995) presents the basics of planning, conducting, participating in, evaluating electronic forums and study circles. Also, the Study Circles Resource Center (SCRC) has prepared a document which describes the study circle (a small-group deliberation process with 10-15 individuals), its defining characteristics, outcomes, and sample public policy issues used by national organizations (National Urban League, YWCA, Education Commission of the States, the National Council of Churches) and many European communities (Study Circles Resource Center, 1995).

Video-Conferencing
Video-conferencing has become an increasingly important instructional tool in American higher education (Juell, Brekke, & Vetteri, 1996; Wheeler, Valacich, Alavi, & Vogel, 1999) since the development of the WWW, video-capable computers in 1975, and the digital camera.Studies (Althaus, 1997; Murphy, Drabier, & Epps, 1998; Wiesenberg & Hutton, 1996) have been conducted to address ways in which computer conferencing impacts interaction and collaboration patterns among students and with the instructor. For example, two counselor, McFadden and Jencius used video conferencing technology to link multicultural counseling classes on their respective campuses in South Carolina and Georgia (McFadden & Jencius, 2000). In another setting,
Pelling and Renard (1999) have devised a model for integrating video tape use into developmentally-based supervision which has numerous video conferencing applications for counselor educators.Foremost, these counselors utlize the Integrated Developmental Model as developed by Stoltenberg & Delworth to design a supervisory framework for counselor trainee development.
Applications of video-conferencing are commonplace, especially in medical training to interview and examine patients who may be hundred of miles away (Brzezicki, 1997; Zaylor, 1997). Recent editions of the on-line medical journal Tele-medicine and Virtual Reality featured surgical procedures (Doctors Use Virtual Reality Scapel to Train for Head Surgery, Plastic Surgery Performed Live on the Internet, Heart Surgery on the 'Net) in addition to numerous articles (Kevelighan, Duffy, Harris, Cole, et al, 1998; Sensi, Merlitti, Pace, & Guagnano, 1995; Sircar, 1998) on the applications of the Internet and computer-based learning in medical science. Clinicians use video conferencing technology to treat depression, suicide ideation, anxiety & mood disorders, eating disorders, children with attention deficit disorders (Winzelberg, Taylor, Sharpe, Eldridge, et al., 1998; Zarate, Weinstock, Cukor, et al., 1997), and for intern supervision (Christie, 1998).
Computer videoconferencing has emerged as an ethical issue within the psychiatric, psychological psycho-therapeutic, and social work communities. Appropriate use and application of video-conference technology, by psychiatric professionals, have yet to be formulated by the American Psychiatric Association. While the APA awaits more data (e.g., validation studies using tele-psychiatry in differing diagnostic conditions, age groups and treatment situations), its Board of Directors has formulated a set of guidelines on the use of video-conferencing (APA Online, 1998).Notwithstanding, the ethics committees of several mental health organizations including the American Psychological Association (1998), American Counseling Association (1997), National Board of Certified Counselors. (1998), the National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter (1997), and the International Society for Mental Health Online (1999) have formulated statements.

Computer-Aided Instruction
Computer-based teaching methods include computer-aided instruction (CAI), computer-based instruction, (CBI), and computer-based teaching (CBT) (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997).These computer instructional formats utilize multi-media based teaching strategies and learning techniques to provide individualized interactive material to increment student knowledge and skills. Phillips (1984b) cites numerous references to support the contention that the most well documented capacities of the computer-assisted instruction literature are its ability to facilitate the acquisition of factual knowledge.
Applications of CAI for counselor education and training appeared frequently in the literature during the 1980's (Baron & Hutchinson, 1984; Halpain, Dixon, & Glover, 1987; Mecaskey, Chan, Wong, Parker, et. al., 1989) and early 1990's (Howell, 1992; Sampson, 1990; Sampson & Krumboltz, 1997) and three times (Caehill, 1998; Chibbaro, 1997; Hayes, 1997) since. Of the studies conducted to determine differences in counselor trainee achievement between CAI and traditional instructional modalities data consistently showed CAI to be at least as effective (Halpain, Dixon, & Glover, 1987; Hayes, 1997), if not superior (Althaus, 1997; Hiltz & Wellman, 1997; Mecaskey, Chan, Wong, etal., 1989) as traditional approaches.

Computer Simulations
Computer simulations are working analogies ofreal-life situations and incorporate greater control over the variables in participant interaction (Phillips, 1984b). Computer simulations also enable students to practice applying knowledge to real-world situations; and assessing the unique pattern of knowledge and skill deficits inherent in each individual so that appropriate intervention components can be delivered to only those areas in need of remediation (Horan, Hackett, Kovalski, Tompkins, & Clark, 1998). Instructional programs using computers foster and encourage critical thinking by enabling students to query for information, make logical connections, and trace "webs" of influence in literature, history and other disciplines (Kozma & Johnston, 1991).
While most computer simulations have been developed for military, industrial, and medical environments, increased attention is being given to academic applications. Computer simulation exercises are used, in the educational environment, with elementary, middle school and teenagers by school guidance counselors (Drakeford, 1995; Rottier, 1995; Sussman, 1997); and with school administrators (Bozeman & Wright, 1994; Twale, 1991). Software manufacturers such as Broderbund, Soleil, and Snyder have designed educational interactive simulations for the school-age population (see Resource Listing-Appendix B). Flight Simulator, developed and distributed by Microsoft, is probably the best selling consumer-based simulation software program.
Technology Innovative Challenge Grants from the Federal government have provided the impetus for school districts to explore educational applications for computer simulation and accelerate student learning with technology.Examples of school districts utilizing technology to reform the curriculum include:

A consortium of Vermont state agencies, private industries and educational institutions has set up a pilot telecommunications technologies program, in three Montpelier school districts, to enact systemic reform.One as aspect of The Web Project is to design a virtual faculty to foster professional discussions about the standards of excellence in education.
Indiana's Gary Community School District, in conjunction with local fraternal and community organizations, seeks to increase both teacher and student multi-media skills in the design of culturally appropriate curriculum materials on African and African-American history.
Manchester School District, in New Hampshire, has collaborated with other districts, colleges, technology vendors, and industries to integrate tele-computing and other learning technologies for instructional and administrative use in all of its schools.
San Antonio's Technology in Education Coalition (SATEC) utilized spreadsheet computer simulations and computer-interfaced probes to develop an innovative training and application model for use with mathematics instruction.
Collegiate institutions have been at the forefront in exploring applications for computer simulations. Selected examples include:

First, the University of Iowa has established an Electric Differential Multimedia Lab within its Virtual Hospital. Formed in 1991, the Electric Differential
Multimedia Lab has four goals:

To assess current needs for electronic learning tools in health care;
To develop and evaluate electronic learning tools in academic and community settings;
To disseminate electronic learning tools internationally via computer networks; and
To increase the frequency and intensity of interdepartmental and interdisciplinary collaboration in medical education and medical informatics (Galvin, D'Alessandro, Erkonen et al., 1995).
Second, Project GeoSim is a joint research project of the Departments of Computer Science and Geography at Virginia Tech. Several population and migration modules have been created by Computer Science and Geography faculty, to teach introductory geography courses. These modules typically have two parts: a tutorial program to introduce terms and concepts of the module; and a simulation program with which to carry out lab exercises Virginia Tech (1998).
Third, the University of Central Florida's Department of Research and Graduate Studies has an Institute for Simulation and Training (IST). IST is working to capture the powerful potential of leading technologies. Worldwide communications, medicine, and education will be transformed as scientists harness the capabilities offered by simulation, virtual reality, high density databases, and the latest in computer science (University of Central Florida, 1999).
Fourth, a three-year, collaborative, experimental project, funded by the NSF, and operated at the University of Nevada-Las Vegas seeks to: (1) reform the earth-science courses, pedagogy, and classroom environment to make science inviting for traditionally marginalized students, particularly women; (2) examine the race, class, and gender dynamics that shape scientific knowledge; and (3) develop truly interdisciplinary "social science of geology" courses by incorporating the knowledge of the natural and social sciences. Projects for Multicultural and Interdisciplinary Study and Education (PROMISE) proposes to develop thematic computer simulation modules that transform both earth-science courses and pedagogy for the teaching of the "social science of geology" will be developed and implemented. PROMISE's goal is to build upon feminist critiques of science by integrating studies of science and feminism.
Fifth, Ohlone College utilizes its video-conference technologies for administrative, instructional and counseling purposes.With regards to the latter, students in the deaf programs at Ohlone and Galludet University assist students at the Hong Kong School for the Deaf learn and recognize cultural mores in the United States.
Transcultural Counselor Education And A Proposed Computer-Aided Instruction Model
Undoubtedly, utilization of video-conference technologies and computer simulations as educational tools will become more commonplace as more counselor educators acquire the skills needed to develop and use emergent computer and information technologies (McFadden & Jencius, 2000). Casey (1999) offers five reasons as to why counselor training has lagged other disciplines with regards to interactive simulation development. The most poignant issue, according to Casey (1999) is that human service providers view technology with a dualistic orientation, tend to see their respective disciplines as discrete, and are resistant to the merger of technology and their profession.
Computer simulations--through iconic representations called avatars (Suler, 1999)-- provide non-threatening environments which allow counselors and students to: explore their views on societal issues (i.e., prejudice/discrimination, hate, peer pressure) and the processes that underlie and perpetuate each; examine their options and consequences; develop critical thinking skills; hone decision-making processes;utilize group problem-solving skills. Also, on-line computer simulations and avatars provide visual images which anchors student knowledge of culture group experiences (Aufderheide, 1992; Sampson & Krumboltz, 1997) and involve students around the world all assuming various roles and experience the issues vicariously (Pinterits & Atkinson, 1998).
For example, experimental group therapy sessions have been conducted on-line with therapists interacting with each other within avatar-based chat rooms (Quimby, 1997). The participants report that the visual dimension adds some reality to the interactions. Participants can move their avatar throughout the room, sitting in a corner or snuggling up to another group member. In order to increase therapist familiarity with avatar applications, several websites including http://www rider.edu/users/suler/psycyber/avgames.html (Suler,1999) and http://www.bbackdoors.com/ showcase an assortment of avatars.
Development of a computer-aided instruction (CAI) model that utilizes computer simulation to foster student implicit worldview learning is proposed for transcultural counselor education.Central to the model is the incorporation of a framework for applying the counselor trainees' knowledge and counseling skills across cultures as delineated in McFadden's Stylistic Model (1993).The stylistic model of counseling is a prime example of how one might approach counseling individuals who have been historically oppressed. It provides an adequate framework within which a counselor might formulate a sequential plan to promote change with clients (McFadden, 1993). The stylistic model allows persons who already have initial training in counseling or those who are receiving training to develop their own mode or style so that they can be effective in helping others who have experienced oppression. It encourages eclecticism as an approach in achieving transculturalism.

Stylistic Counseling Model
Stylistic counseling incorporates within its design a structure that supports prerequisites for effective transcultural counseling.It is a model geared toward the development of a framework for counselors to apply their knowledge and skills in counseling across cultures. Individuals historically excluded from and underrepresented within the social system, frequently known as minorities, can be well served by helping professionals using this model.
The model originally emerged out of a need for assistance, training, programming, and an outreach on behalf of African Americans in the United States (McFadden, 1999). However, stylistic counseling has proved subsequently to be applicable to a number of oppressed groups on an international level regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, disability, geography, sexual orientation, culture, and the like.To effect change through transcultural counseling, this approach holds that counselors should demonstrate knowledge of and sensitivity to the history, psychology, sociology, and ideology of their clients.

Anatomy of Stylistic Counseling
The design of stylistic counseling is thematically constructed around three dimensions: (see Figure 1) cultural-historical, psycho-social, and scientific-ideological.The dimensions, being hierarchical in nature, suggest by their cubical arrangement that transcultural counselors progress through the model in an ascending manner, from cultural-historical to psycho-social to scientific-ideological.

Figure 1. The Stylistic Model

The basic and fundamental dimension is cultural-historical, relating specifically to the culture of a people and how their history evolved over time. The second dimension, psycho-social, relates specifically to the psychological framework, the formation of a mind-set of how a person's psychic influence affects his or her scope and development, such as in the case of a person's interaction based on how the person sees his or her own cultural heritage. The third dimension is scientific- ideological. It refers specifically to an action-oriented aspect of counseling.

Computer-Simulated Transcultural Education Model
As an adaptation of a staged clinical interview simulation model developed for Australian medical students (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997) and a case-based reasoning project under development at MIT (Szolovits, 1999), the proposed CAI computer-simulation transcultural education model:

Comprises digital-video based transcultural counseling scenarios and themes. Each vignette highlights student ability to analyze, digest, and assimilate pertinent indigenous cultural information; and awareness of his or her own attitudes and feelings towards minority individuals and other cultural groups (McFadden, 1993; McFadden, 2000).
Allows the counselor trainee to direct the counseling interview via a variety of computer formats--selecting from an options list, typing short text answers, or pointing to drive specific events (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997; Lichtenberg, Hummel, & Shaffer, 1984).
Directs an avatar1 (Blumberg, 1997; Miller-Freeman, 1996; Suler,1999; Vince & Earnshaw, 1999) --a computer-animated individual embedded with various layers of issues related to race, ethnicity, culture, nationality, and gender-- to respond with short descriptions of common themes presented in initial transcultural counseling sessions (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997).
Contains multiple branches and the flow of the transcultural counseling session is determined by the conditions and options chosen (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997) by the counselor trainee, that is, the counselor moves from stage to stage of the cultural encounter in a manner shaped by their responses to the client (Foulkes, Westermeyer, & Ta, 1998; McFadden, 1993).
Permits students to engage in repeated practice sessions and to receive individualized skill training (Hayes, 1997; Limbach, Weges & Valcke, 1997; Wagner & Cobitz,1997).
Incorporates a self-assessment module which allows students to gauge their immediate performance (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997; Mooney & Bligh, 1998).
Records the responses and decisions of the counselor trainee thus creating an instructional or assessment audit trail for the counselor educator (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997).

The avatars could be developed by transcultural counseling students from international multi-campus listservs, established by either transcultural counselor educators or a graduate student association of the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development, the International Counseling Association and their counterparts throughout the world.

Transcultural Education Resources
Computer-mediated technologies have been utilized to develop resources to combat bigotry. As an illustration, the Institute for Public Media Arts (IPMA) utilizes information technologies (especially video, WWW/Internet, etc.) as an educational and media tool for reflection, learning and empowerment (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998).IPMA primarily provides people traditionally under-represented in mainstream media access tools to communicate about community issues they find important; to build community; to advance education and the articulation of marginalized voices; and to increase critical thinking and community problem-solving skills (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998). For example, IPMA worked with students at 12 colleges and universities across the country as a part of the ISMproject to create a common group video about campus diversity issues (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998).
One of the institutions, the University of Massachusetts-Amherst, developed a pilot course from asection of a general education "diversity" core course, Social Diversity in Education..The two-semester course incorporates an experiential student-centered approach to making video documentaries (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998). The diversity component of the course brings theory concerning the dynamics of oppression to bear upon specific historical and social contexts of sexism, heterosexism, racism, anti-Semitism and ableism (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998). Learning goals include video documentary literacy and production skills to express their experiences of campus life, their home or high school communities, and to create short video documentaries illustrative of those experiences (Institute for Public Media Arts, 1998).
Bergen Educational Training Technology Center (ETTC), in Bergen County, New Jersey, utilizes a technology-based learning course to provide students with hands-on experiences for developing web-based multicultural projects. The Multicultural Projects course explores cultural diversity, the literature, the perspectives and implications, and their integration in curriculum planning and incorporation in technology based learning. Additional information on the course is available online at http://www.bergen.org/ETTC/Web/Multicultural.html.
Ultimately the cultural and empowering potential of the Internet and computer technologies cannot be truly realized while Eurocentric software continues solely to be utilized. For example, computer clip-art representative of marginalized cultural groups and multicultural software should be an integral aspect of any transcultural counselor's software library. Inasmuch as computer retail and superstores do not stock culturally-appropriate clip-art, a Internet search was conducted. A resource listing of transcultural clip-art has been included in Appendix A. Mathis-Johnson and Barnett (1998) delineated guidelines for the identification of appropriate software. They utilized guidelines issued by the National Council for the Social Studies' (NCSS) and its task force on ethnic studies, multicultural education (Mathis-Johnson & Barnett,1998).

Conclusion
While the Internet lies at the heart of the communication and technological revolution in the United States (President's Information Technology Advisory Committee, 1998), it has further marginalized several cultural groups including African-Americans, Latinos, and the rural poor (Ebo,1998; Lillie, 1998; Wilhelm, 1997) Ultimately, the cultural and empowering potential of the Internet cannot be truly realized while only relatively wealthy nations, individuals, and families have access (Mogelonsky, 1996).Any segregation of the Internet, be it economic, cultural, political, or social, has dire implications for historically marginalized populations.
Computer applications in counselor training began as informational diagnostic databases, models of systematic intervention, mechanical clients with which to practice, and supervisory monitoring systems (Phillips, 1984a). With the increased convergence of the collegiate curriculum and computer technologies in the United States, counselor education programs must embrace new paradigms for instruction and supervision.Counselor education faculty computer technology proficiency insures increased student mastery of emergent learning modalities; deficiency results in both professional and disciplinary parochialism.
Principal transcultural counseling skills are developed, in part, by an osmotic process in which the more cultural contacts counselor trainees have (Foulkes, Westermeyer, & Ta, 1998; Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997), the greater their ability to recognize ethnocentrism and heretofore unquestioned assumptions about their cultural hegemony (McFadden, 1999). Similarly, implicit knowledge of any culture group can only be acquired as a by-product of extensive engagement with that culture (Lambert, Kirby, & Dunn, 1997).Transcultural counselor educators must explore, and if necessary design, innovative instructional and computer simulations which increase student implicit learning of transcultural skills and practices.
Of the more than 200 submissions received each year for the EDUCOM/NCRIPTAL Higher Education Software Awards (Kozma & Johnston, 1991), it is time for transcultural counselor educators to submit an entry. At the very least, transcultural counselor education is confronted with many opportunities and challenges to commingle the pedagogy with computer applications. How will the profession choose to respond?

References
ACES (Association for Counselor Education and Supervision) Technology Interest Network. (1999). Technical competencies for counselor education students: Recommended guidelines for program development. [on-line document]. Available [http://www.auburn.edu./ccp/acestin].
ACES (Association for Counselor Education and Supervision) Technology Interest Network. (1999). ACES guidelines for online instruction in counselor education. [on-line document]. Available [http://www.chre.vt.edu/f-s/thohen/competencies.htm].
Althaus, S.L. (1997). Computer-mediated communication in the university classroom: An experiment with on-line discussions. Communication Education, 46, 158-174.
American Counseling Association. (1997). ACA code of ethics and standards of practice.Alexandria, VA.: American Counseling Association.
American Psychological Association. (1998, January). Ethics committee issues statement on services by telephone, teleconferencing and internet. APA Monitor, 29,(1), 38.
Ancis, J.R. (1998, Spring). Cultural competency training at a distance: Challenges and strategies. Journal of Counseling and Development, 76 (2), 134-143.
Anderson, C. M. (1998). The use of computer technology by academics to communicate inter-nationally: Computer-mediated communication and the invisible college (e-mail, Internet. collabor-ation).(Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59/07A. (University Microforms No. AAG 9841836).
APA Online. (1998, July). APA resource document on telepsychiatry via videoconferencing. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.psych.org/pract_of_psych/tp_paper.html].
Aufderheide, P. (1992). Multicultural video in the teaching of history.In B. Abrash & C. Egan (Eds.), Mediating history: The MAP guide to independent video by and about African American, Asian, American Latino, and Native American people (pp. 7-13). New York: New York University Press.
Baird, E. (1998, July). Ain't gotta do nothin but be brown and die. CMC Magazine.[on-line article]. Available [http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/1998/jul/baird.html].
Baron, A. & Hutchinson, J. (1984, December).Interactive video: A promising technology for counseling services. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63 (4), 244-247.
Beller, M. & Or, E. (1998, December). The crossroads between lifelong learning and information technology: A Challenge facing leading universities. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 4, (2). [http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol4/issue2/beller.html].
Berven, N.L. (1985). Computer technology in professional education. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 29 (1), 26-41.
Blumberg, B.M. (1997). Old tricks, new dogs: Ethology and interactive creatures (autonomous agents). (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1997). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 58/04B. (University Microforms No. AAG 0598010).
Bozeman, W. & Wright, R. H. (1994-95). Simulation Applications in Educational Leadership. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 23 (3), 219-31.
Brzezicki, L.A. (1997, November 3). Telemedicine continues to make waves. Advance for Occupational Therapists. p.21.
Caehill, P-M. (1998). The use of computer-mediated communications as a means of continuing professional development for school psychologists: A needs assessment. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59-04A. (University Microforms No. AAI 9831204).
Casey, J.A. (1999). Computer assisted simulation for counselor training of basic skills.The Journal of Technology in Counseling, 1 (1), Available [http://jtc.colstate.edu/vol 1_1].
Castro, A.S. (1990, November). AARNet and Australian tertiary distance education. Distance Education-An International Journal, 11 (2), 213-230.
Chibbaro, J.S. (1997). Determining the cognitive effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction and traditional classroom instruction for introductory level counselor education students. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina, 1997). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 58-03A. (University Microforms No. AAI 9726736).
Christie, B.S. (1998). Distance clinical supervision in cyberspace: A qualitative study. (Doctoral dissertation, Oregon State University, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59-12A. (University Microforms No. AAG9914128).
Clarke, R.D. (1999, April). Going the distance: Earning a degree via the Internet. Black Enterprise, 29, 9, 113-118.
Crossman, D.M. (1997).The evolution of the World Wide Web as an emerging instructional technology tool. In B.H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based instruction (pp. 19-23). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Das, A.K. (1995). Rethinking multicultural counseling: Implications for counselor implications. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 45-52.
Deloughry, T.J. (1996, September 20). New School for Social Research bolsters flagging enrolments with 90 on-line courses. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 43, 4, 27-28.
Ding, X.(1994). China's higher distance education B Its four systems and their structural character-istics at three levels. Distance Education-An International Journal, 15 (2), 327-346.
Dixon, P. (1996). Virtual college: A quick guide to how you can get the degree you want with computer, tv, video, audio and other distance learning tools. Princeton, NJ: Peterson's
Drakeford, C. A. (1995). High school guidance counseling by computers: A study of the therapeutic learning program (TLP). (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 56/07a. (University Microforms No. AAI9539791).
Eastmond, D.V. (1998, Summer). Adult learners and Internet-based distance education. In B. Cahoon (Ed.), Adult learner and the Internet. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 78, pp.33-41.San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Ebo, B. (Ed.), (1998). Cyberghetto or cybertopia? Race, class, and gender on the Internet.Westport, CT.: Praeger.
Elsiddig, M. O.(1993). Planning higher education: Towards an open university for the Sudan. Distance Education-An International Journal, 14, 138-146.
Forcier, R.C. (1996). The computer as a productivity tool in education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall.
Foulkes, E., Westermeyer, J., & Ta, K. (1998). Developing curricula for transcultural mental health for trainees and trainers. In S.O. Okpaku (Ed.), Clinical methods in transcultural psychiatry (pp.339-362). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Galvin J.R., D'Alessandro, M.P., Erkonen, W.E., Smith, W.L., El-Khoury, G.Y., & Weinstein, J.N. (1995).The Virtual Hospital: Providing Multimedia Decision Support Tools via the Internet. Spine, 20, 1735-1738.[on-line article]. Available [http://www.vh.org/Welcome/ElectricDifferentialLab/EDLab.html]
Gaydosh, C.N. (1996, October 31). Using the Internet for triple-blind psychological research studies. Paper presented at Society for Computers in Psychology (SCiP), twenty-sixth annual conference. Chicago, IL.
Giese, F. (1999). A case study of the educational technology curriculum and outcomes in two teacher credential programs in the San Francisco Bay Area. (Doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59/09. (University Microforms No. AAT 9908003).
Glenn, P.J., Koschman, T. and Conlee, M. (1995).Theory sequences in a problem-based learning group: A case study.In J. L. Schnase and E. L. Cunnius (Eds.), (1995). Proceedings from the First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning.
Gouttman, R.(1982). Israel's Everyman's University, Distance Education-An International Journal, 3 (2), 293-297.
Gupta, S.(1991). Distance education in Ethiopia. Distance Education-An International Journal,12 (2), 279-285.
Halpain, D.R., Dixon, D.N., & Glover, J.A. (1987, June). The great therapists program: Computerized learning of counseling theories. Counselor Education and Supervision, 26 (4), 255-259.
Hayes, B.L. (1997). Assessing the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in teaching communication skills to counselor education students at a beginning graduate level. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina, 1997). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 58-03A. (University Microforms No. AAG 9726753).
Henderson, L. & Putt, I.(1993). The Remote Area Teacher Program (RATEP): Cultural contextualisation of distance education through interactive multimedia. Distance Education-An International Journal, 14 (2), 212-231.
Hiltz, S.R. & Wellman, B. (1997). Asynchronous learning networks as a virtual classroom. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 40 (9), 44-49.
Holmberg, B.(1985). Applications of distance education in Kenya. Distance Education-An International Journal, 6 (2), 242-247.
Holt, M.E., Kleiber, P.B., Swenson, E., & Milton, J. (1998, Summer). Facilitating group learning on the Internet. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 78, 43-51.
Horan, J.J., Hackett, G., Kovalski, T., Tompkins, A., & Clark, G. (1998, April 17). Interactive Career Counseling on the Internet. A paper presented in a Symposium entitled "Career Counseling in the 21st Century" at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, California.
Howell, J.L. (1992). Computer usage by Arizona public school counselors.(Doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 53-07A. (University Microforms No. AAI 9233761).
Hutchinson, C. (1999). The ICP online: Jeux sans frontieres on the cybercampus. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 4, 2, [on-line article]. Available [http://209.130.1.169/jcmc/vol1/issue1/hutchison/CHRISR.html].
Ihle, G. M. (1998). Counselor and client differences: Relationships among worldviews, gender role identities, and counselor role expectancies.(Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1998).Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59/08A. (University Microforms No. AAG 9902963).
Institute for Public Media Arts. (1998). Durham, NC.
International Society for Mental Health Online (1999). By-laws.[on-line article]. Available http://www.ismho.org/bylaws.htm
Jenkins, J.(1989). Some trends in distance education in Africa: An examination of the past and future role of distance education as a tool for national development. Distance Education-An International Journal, 10 (1), 41-63.
Juell, P., Brekke, D., Vetter, R.J., & Wasson, J. (1996). Evaluation of computer conferencing tools for conducting collaborative seminars on the Internet. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 2, 4, 233-248.
Kevelighan, E.H.,Duffy, S.R.G., Harris, R.M., Cole, A.J., et al, (1998). An innovative special study module utilizing computer-based learning in obstetrics and gynaecology. Medical Teacher, 20 (5), 442-444.
Kleiber, P.B., Holt, M.E., and Swenson, E. (1995). The electronic forum handbook: Study circles in cyberspace.[on-line article]. Available [http://www.cpn.org/sections/tools/manuals/electronic_handbook1.html]. Pomfret, Ct.: Study Circles Resource Center.
Kozma, R. & Johnston, J. (1991, January/February). The technological revolution comes to the classroom. Change, 23, 1013.
Lambert, T.J., Kirkby, K.C., & Dunn, J.C. (1997, February). Clinical education and the computer: A proposed model for computer-aided learning in the medical curriculum.Computers in Mental Health. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimh].
LaRose, R., Gregg, J., & Eastin, M. (1998, December). Audiographic telecourses for the web: An experiment. Journal of Computed-Mediated Communication, 4, 2. [http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol4/issue2/larose.html].
Lengauer, G.(1984). A survey of distance study in Austria. Distance Education-An International Journal, 5 (1), 103-107.
Lichtenberg, J.W., Hummel, T.J., & Shaffer, W.F. (1984). Client 1: A computer simulation for use in counselor education and research. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24, (2), 155-167.
Lillie, J.J.M. (1998). Cultural uses of new, networked Internet information and communication technologies: Implications for U.S. Latino identities. Unpublished Masters thesis, School of Journalism and Mass Communications, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Limbach, R., Weges, H.G., & Valcke, M.M.A. (1997). Adapting the delivery of learning materials to student preferences: Two studies with a course model based on 'cases'. Distance Education-An International Journal, 18, 1, 24-43.
Mathis-Johnson, J. & Barnett, E. (1998, September). Using multicultural software in the curriculum. Learning & Leading With Technology, 26 (1), 53-58.
McFadden, J. (Ed.), (1993). Transcultural counseling: Bilateral and international perspectives. Alexandria, VA.: American Counseling Association.
McFadden, J. (1999). Historical approaches in transcultural counseling.. In J. McFadden (Ed.), Transcultural counseling, second edition. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
McFadden, J. (2000). Transcultural vignettes for helping and management professionals. Louisville, TN: Dura-Nuance Associates.
McFadden, J., & Jencius, M. (2000). Using cyberspace to enhance counselor's cultural transcendence.In J.W. Bloom &G.R. Walz (Eds.), Cybercounseling and cyberlearning: Strategies and resources for the millennium. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
McLoughlin, C, & Oliver, R. (1998). Planning a telelearning environment to foster higher order thinking. Distance Education-An International Journal, 19 (2), 242-264.
Mecaskey, C., Chan, F., Wong, D., Parker, H.J.et. al. (1989). Evaluating clinical problem-solving skills through computer simulations. Journal of Rehabilitation Counseling, 55 (3), 34-38.
Miller-Freeman. (1996, May 23). Avatars. Electronic Times, 20-22.
Mogelonsky, M. (1996, April). Working with the Net. American Demographics
Mooney, G.A., & Bligh, J.G. (1998, May). CyberIST: A virtual game for medical education. Medical Teacher, 20 (3), 212-216.
Murphy, K.L., Drabier, R., & Epps, L. (1998). A constructivist look at interaction and collaboration via computer conferencing. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 4, 2/3, 237-262. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.aace.org/pubs/ijet].
Myrick, R.D. & Sabella, R.A. (1995). Cyberspace: New place for counselor supervision. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 30 (1), 34-44.
National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter. (1997). NASW code of ethics. Sacramento, CA.: National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter
National Board of Certified Counselors. (1998, May 18). A set of standards for on-line counseling. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.nbcc.org/ethics/wcstandards.htm].
National Center for Education Statistics. (1997, October). Distance education in higher education institutions: Statistical analysis report, (NCES 98-062) by Laurie Lewis, Debbie Alexander, and Elizabeth Farris. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education.
Northrup, P.T. (1997). Faculty perceptions of distance education: Factors affecting utilization. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 3 (4), 343-358.Available [http://www. aace.org/pubs/ijet].
Nyirenda, J. E.(1989). Organisation of distance education at the University of Zambia: An analysis of the practice. Distance Education-An International Journal, 10, (1),148-156.
Pelling, N., & Renard, D. (1999). The use of videotaping within developmentally-based supervision. The Journal of Technology in Counseling, 1 (1), Available [http://jtc.colstate.edu/vol 1_1].
Phillips, S.D. (1984a, December). Editorial, Special issue: Computers in counselor training. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24, (2), 130.
Phillips, S.D. (1984b, December). Contributions and limitations in the use of computers in counselor training. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24 (2), 186-192.
Pinterits, E.J., & Atkinson, D.R. (1998). The diversity video forum: An adjunct to diversity sensitivity training in the classroom. Counselor Education and Supervision, 37, 203-212.
Plowman, T.S. (1999). The information superhighway: A comparative look at the growth of informational technology in Australia and India. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 5 (2), 93-110.
Powell, T. (1998, May 3). Online counseling: A profile and descriptive analysis. University of Kentucky. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.netpsych.com/Powell.htm]
Prahalad, C.K. (1998, May/June). Managing discontinuities: The emerging challenges. Research Technology Management, 41, 3, 14-22.
President's Information Technology Advisory Committee (1998, August). Interim report to the President. Arlington, VA.: National Coordination Office for Computing, Information, and Communications
Quimby, G.R. (1997). Avatar process training group project. [on-line article]. Available: [http://telehealth.net/articles/avatar.html]
Quinn, J. R. (1993). Evaluation and assessment for transcultural counseling. In J. McFadden (Ed.), Transcultural counseling: Bilateral and international perspectives. p.345-372 Alexandria, VA.: American Counseling Association.
Reed, W.M. & Wells, J.G. (1997). Merging the Internet and hypermedia in the English language arts. Computers in Schools, 13, 3/4, 75-102.
Reushle, S. E. (1995). Design considerations and features in the development of hypermedia courseware. Distance Education-An International Journal, 16, (1), 141-156.
Reynolds, A.L. (1995). Challenges and strategies for teaching multicultural counseling courses. In J.G. Ponterotto, J.M. Casas, L.A. Suzuki, & C.M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 312-330). Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage.
Rivero, V. (1999, January). In close: William E. Kennard: Bridging the digital divide. Converge. on-line article]. Available: [http://www.convergemag.com/publications/CNVGJan99/kennard/kennard.shtm]
Roper Starch. (1999, May 4). US has most e-commerce consumers. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.cyberatlas.com/big_picture/demographics/roper.html].
Rottier, K. L. (1995, October). If Kids Ruled the World: ICONS. Educational Leadership, 53, (2), 51-53.
Rumble, G. (1985). Distance education in Latin America: models for the 80s. Distance Education-An International Journal, 6, (2), 248-255.
Rushlau, M.G. (1998). An examination of self-efficacy in master's level counselor trainees (graduate students). (Doctoral dissertation, Western Michigan University, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 59/11A. (University Microforms No. AAG 9911095).
Rutkowski, A. M. (1998, February). Internet Trends. Washington, D.C.: Center for Next Generation Internet. [http://www.ngi.org/trends.htm].
Salinas, B., Marquez, J., and Leon, R. (1995). Analysis of interactions based on computer use from cognitive and cultural perspectives: An exploratory study in Mexico. In J. L. Schnase and E. L. Cunnius (Eds.), (1995). Proceedings from the First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning.
Sampson, D.E. (1983). A comparison of adjunct computer-assisted instruction and traditional instruction for teaching counseling theories. (Doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 44-05A. University Microforms No. AAG 8320238).
Sampson, J.P. (1990, April). Computer-assisted testing and the goals of counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist, 18, (2), 227-239.
Sampson, J. P., Kolodinsky, R. W., & Greeno, B. P. (1997). Counseling on the information highway: Future possibilities and potential problems. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 203-212.
Sampson, J.P. & Krumboltz, J.D. (1997, May-June). Computer-assisted instruction: A missing link in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63, (4), 244-247.
Sampson, J.P.J. (1986). Computer technology and counseling psychology: Regression toward the machine? The Counseling Psychologist, 14, 4, 567-583.
Schrum, L. (1998, Summer). On-line education: A study of emerging pedagogy. In B. Cahoon (Ed.), Adult learner and the Internet. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 78, pp.53-61. San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Schutte, J.G. (1997). Virtual teaching in higher education: The new intellectual highway or just another traffic jam? [on-line article]. Available [http://www.csun.edu/sociologu/virexp.htm].
Seguin, C.A. (1995). Teacher use of the electronic information highway (Internet) for curriculum and instruction and professional activities. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 58/07. (University Microforms No. AAT 9801585).
SeniorNet. (1998, October 27). Rising number of seniors online. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.cyberatlas.com/big_picture/demographics/seniors.html].
Sensi, S., Merlitti, R., Pace, P.V., & Guagnano, M.T. (1995). Evaluation of learning progress in internal medicine using computer-aided clinical case simulation. Medical Teacher, 21, 10-14.
Simich-Dudgeon, C. (1998). Developing a college web-based course: Lessons learned. Distance Education-An International Journal, 19, (2), 47-58.
Sircar, S. S. (1998, June). Using simple animations in physiology teaching: Ventilatory patterns--A case in point. Advances in Physiology Educations, 19, (1), 84-89.
Snyder, T. (1992). Decisions, decisions: Prejudice. Watertown, MA.:Tom Snyder Productions. [http://www.teachtsp.com/products/products.html].
Snyder, T. (1993a). Learning styles inventory.Watertown, MA.:Tom Snyder Productions. [http://www.teachtsp.com/products/products.html].
Snyder, T. (1993b). Choices choices: On the playground. Watertown, MA.:Tom Snyder Productions. [http://www.teachtsp.com/products/products.html].
Snyder, T. (1994). Cultural Reporter. Watertown, MA.:Tom Snyder Productions. [http://www.teachtsp.com/products/products.html].
Southern Regional Education Board. (1999). Southern regional electronic campus. [http://srec.sreb.org/student/srecinfo/poster].
Spring, T. (1999, March 26). A remedy for the digital divide. PC World News [http://www.pcworld.com/pcwtoday/article/0,1510,10294,00.html].
Stamm B. H. (1998, December). Clinical Applications of Telehealth in Mental Health Care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29, (6), 536-542.
Sterling, B. (1993). Short history of the Internet. Cornwall, CT.: CF&SF.
Stevens, M.J. & Morris, S.J. (1998, December). A format for case conceptualization. Counselor Education and Supervision, 35, 82-94.
Steward, S. (1997, February). Diminishing the digital divide. Cellular Business, 14, 2, 32-38.
Strang, H.R. (1997). The use of Curry teaching simulations in professional training. Computers in Schools, 13, 3/4, 135-145.
Strang, H.R., Landrum, M.S., & Ulmer, C. (1991). A self-administered simulation for training basic teaching skills. Computers in Schools, 8, 229-243.
Strang, H.R. & Yeh, Y. (1995). Assesstin teacher ethnic and gender biases via computer-based teaching simulation. In D.A. Willis, B. Robin, & J. Willis (Eds.), Technology and Teacher Education Annual: 1995 (pp. 546-549). Charlottesville, VA.: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Study Circles Resource Center (1995). Study Circles. Pomfret, Ct.: Study Circles Resource Center. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.journalism.wisc.edu/cpn/sections/tools/manuals].
Suler, J. (1999, April). The psychology of avatars and graphical space in multimedia chat communities. [On-line article]. Available: [http://www.rider.edu/users/suler/psycyber/psycyber.html]
Sussman, B.M. (1997). Computer use by school psychologists: An investigation of behavior, attitudes, knowledge, resources, and administrative support and expectations. (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey). Dissertation Abstracts-International, 58-04a. (University Microforms No. AAI9731153).
Swaim, J., & Jones, K. (1999). Using technology in school counseling.[on-line article]. Available [http://fly.hiwaay.net/~swaim/counsel.htm].
Szolovits, P. (1999). Case based reasoning in cardiovascular disease. [http://medg.lcs.mitedu/projects/cbr].
Taylor, J. C. et al. (1986). Student persistence in distance education: a cross-cultural, multi-institutional perspective. Distance Education-An International Journal, 7, (1), 68-91.
Telecommunications Act of 1996, Pub. LA. No. 104_104, 110 Stat. 56 (1996). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.fcc.gov/telecom.html]
Telemedicine and Virtual Reality. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.medscape.com].
Thomas, E. (1995). The history of listserv. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.lsoft.com/listserv-hist.com]
Treagust, D. F., Waldrip, B. G. & Horley, J. R. (1993). Effectiveness of ISDN video-conferencing: A case study of two campuses and two different courses. Distance Education-An International Journal, 14, (2), 315-330.
Treese, W. (1983-99). The Internet index. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.openmarket.com/intindex].
Twale, D. J. (1991, December). Southeast State University: A Simulation for Higher Education Administration Courses. Simulation & Gaming, 22, (4), 490-97.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (1999a, February). Internet access in public and private schools, NCES 1999-005. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (1999b, February). Internet access in public schools and classroom, NCES 1999-017. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office
University of Central Florida (1999). Institute for Simulation and Training. Orlando, FL.: Department of Research and Graduate Studies, University of Central Florida. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.ist.ucf.edu].
Vanderhorst, K. and Rod Rychliski, R. (1998). HyperStudio Step by Step for Hyper Teachers. Kitchenrer, Ont.:K & R Consultants.
Vince, J. & Earnshaw, R. (1999). Virtual Worlds on the Internet. Los Alamitos, CA.: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Inc.
Virginia Tech (1998). Project GeoSim. Blacksburg, VA.: Departments of Computer Science and Geography. [on-line article]. Available [http://geosim.cs.vt.edu/]
Wagman, M., & Kerber, K.W. (1980). PLATO DCS, an interactive computer system for personal counseling: Further development and evaluation. Journal of Counseling Pyschology, 27, 31-39.
Wagner, M.L. & Cobitz, C. I., ( 1997). Responsibility, hitting; A hyperstudio stack. Greensboro, NC.: North Carolina A&T State University. [on-line article]. Available [http://www.ncat.edu/~schofed/its/cobitz].
Washington, D.C. FreeNet. (1997). [on-line article]. Available [http://dcfree.net/]
Watkins, B.T. (1992, April 29). Freenet helps Case Western fulfill its Community-Service Mission. Chronicle of Higher Education. A21.
Webster, J. & Hackley, P. (1997). Teaching effectiveness in technology-mediated distance learning. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 6, 1282-1309.
Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. (1992). Exploring the relationship: A survey of the literature on higher education and the economy. Higher Education and the Economy of the West. Working Paper #2. Boulder, CO.: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education
Wheeler, B.C., Valacich, J.S., Alavi, M., & Vogel, D. (1999). A framework for technology-mediated inter-institutional telelearning relationships. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 4, 2, [http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol1/issue1/wheeler/essay.html].
White, C.J. (1997). Effects of mode of study on foreign language learning. Distance Education-An International Journal, 18, (1), 178-196.
Wiesenberg, F. and Hutton, S. (1996). Teaching a graduate program using computer-mediated conferencing software. Journal of Distance Education, 11, (1), 83-100.
Wilhelm, A. (1986). The new information technology and the education of Hispanics: The promise and the dilemma. Claremont, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute.
Wilhelm, A. (1994). Latinos and the information superhighway. Claremont, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute.
Wilhelm, A. (1996). Latinos and information technology: Preparing for the twenty-first century. Claremont, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute.
Wilhelm, A. (1997). Buying into the computer age: A look at the Hispanic middle class. Claremont, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute.
Wilson, R. F., Jencius, M., & Duncan, D. (1997). Introduction to the Internet: Opportunities and dilemmas. Counseling and Human Development, 29 (6), 1-16.
Wilson, M., Qayyum, A., & Boshier, R. (1998). World wide America? Think globally, click locally. Distance Education-An International Journal, 19, (1), 109-123.
Winzelberg, A.J., Taylor, C.B., Sharpe, T., Eldridge, K.L., et al. (1998, December). Evaluation of a computer-mediated eating disorder intervention program. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 24, (4), 339-349.
Wolcott, J. R. & Robertson, J. E. (1997). The world wide web as an environment for collaborative research: An experiment with graduate education. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 3, 2/3.
Young, S.W. (1999). A field study on the implementation of a synchronous distance course with asynchronous Internet-supported telecommunications technologies in Taiwan, R.O.C. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 5, (2), 111-126.
Yu, X. (1994). China's higher distance education: Its four systems and their structural characteristics at three levels. Distance Education-An International Journal, 15, (2), 327-346.
Zarate C.A., Weinstock, L., Cukor, P., et al. (1997, January). Applicability of telemedicine for assessing patients with schizophrenia; acceptance and reliability. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58, (1), 22-25.
Zaylor C. (1997, April 4). Telemedicine: Changing the Paradigm of Psychiatry. Paper Presented at Second Annual Conference of the American Telemedicine Association, Atlanta, GA.

About the Author
John McFadden is the Benjamin E. Mays Professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina. Correspondence should be addressed via email to jmcfadden@gwm.sc.edu