Abstract
Computer technology
has increasingly gained importance in the counseling profession. Therefore,
counselor education training programs have begun to accept the need for
increased technological proficiency in their graduates entering the job market.
Computers are used to manipulate data, do word processing, and even facilitating
client progress in counseling service delivery. The focus of this article is to
assess student computer competency level as an effect of a one-credit hour
introductory course in computer technology. The ACES Technology Interest Network
recommended the 12 computer competencies selected for this research study.
Results indicate student computer competencies increased after completing the
computer technology course in the following areas: ethics, assisting clients
with internet searches, statistical packages, listserv knowledge, CD-Rom,
presentation software, and evaluating information from the internet. Findings
indicate no group differences existed between the control and the experimental
groups on motivation factors involved with computers usage such as: external
regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, and intrinsic
motivation. Implications for counselor educators and students are presented.
Computers have been more widely
used in counseling for record keeping (Katz & Shatkin,
1983), data analysis (Harris-Bowlsbey,
1983), cybercounseling and cyberlearning (Bloom & Waltz,
2000). In addition, counselor educators are beginning to use computer
applications in the training of counselors (Cairo,
1984). The National Board for
Certified Counselors (NBCC) and the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) have adopted guidelines on the use of
technology in training counselors (Hayes, 2001). These progressive movements
provide the impetus for incorporation of technology training in counselor
preparation programs.
The
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES,
1999) Technology
Interest Network recommended twelve technical
competencies necessary for counselor training (Appendix
A). These 12
competencies are directly related to training counseling students and establish
the first level of technology skills a counselor may need to be technologically
competent. McFadden and Jencius (2000) describe these computer competencies as
absolutes for counselors to master. While computer competencies may be absolutes
for counselors, many have not considered computer competencies involve a
developmental process and require technical skills. Myers and Gibson (1999)
directed by the ACES Technology Interest Network surveyed counselor educators
and students. Their findings revealed counselor educators and students lacked a
uniformly high level of competency in each of the 12 areas.
Since
1984, the University of Iowa has incorporated an introductory computer course
into the counselor education curriculum to expose masters’ level students to
computer technology. This course is designed to advance the use of technology
for guidance and counseling professionals. The course emerged from a response
from the school guidance and counseling professionals. The first course provided
training in computer fundamentals on AppleIIw computers, using interactive video
skills and CD-I, word processing, spreadsheet and database with AppleWorks, and
graphics with MacPaint. The course has now expanded into teaching internet
searching related to counseling, cybercounseling ethical responsibilities,
development of web pages, presentation software (i.e., PowerPoint) and
statistical packages. A distance hybrid learning approach is utilized by
facilitating learning through web-based instruction called WebCT.
The
current study was designed to examine the lack of uniformity among counseling
students described by the
findings of Myers and Gibson (1999). An investigation of the
effectiveness of a required technology course on student computer competency
appeared necessary. Research questions were as follows:
1. Do students with or without computer
instruction differ significantly in computer competencies?
2. Do students with or without computer
instruction differ significantly on their motivation towards computer usage?
The
researchers hypothesized that students with computer instruction would differ
from students without computer instruction on their level of computer competency
and motivation towards computer usage.
Method
This
empirical study utilized a quasi-experimental cohort research design (Cook &
Campbell, 1979; Cook, Campbell, &
Peracchio, 1990). This quasi-experimental
design assumed quasi-comparability between successive cohorts (Cook &
Campbell, 1979). Therefore, the successive cohort groups were the summer and
fall semester classes of 7C: 281 course at the University of Iowa. Comparisons
were made between an experimental group and a control group. Pre and posttest
scores were reported for the experimental group and compared to the pre-test
scores of the control group. The statistical comparison was made between the
summer (experimental group) posttest scores and the fall (control group)
pre-test scores.
Participants
Twenty-six
(experimental group N=16, control group N=10) masters level counseling students
in the Division of Counseling, Rehabilitation, and Student Development were
involved in this study. All students were enrolled in the 7C: 281 Introduction
to Computers for Counselors course during the summer and fall semesters of 2001.
The master’s level students were in four counseling programs within the
division: rehabilitation counseling, school counseling, student development, and
substance abuse. Students voluntarily participated in the study.
The
study participants consisted of 26 students with 84.2 %
females and 15.8 % males. The respondents ranged in age from 22-57 years
with 50% between 22-27 years old. Sixty-seven percent had a status of being a
full-time student. Thirty-seven percent of the respondents were in the school
counseling program, 32 % rehabilitation counseling program, 13 % substance abuse
program, and 18% student development program. The mean number of courses
completed toward a counseling degree was 6.1 with an average of 19.0 semester
hours accumulated. Sixty-five percent indicated they had taken a technology
course.
Experimental Group
The
experimental group consisted of 16 students with 89.3% females and 10.7% males.
Forty-two percent of the respondents were in the school counseling program, 33%
were in the rehabilitation counseling program, 18% were in the substance abuse
counseling program, and 7% were in the student development program. These
respondents ranged in age from 22-57 years. The majority (43%) of the
respondents were in the 22-27 age range with 36% aligning in the 28-33 years age
range. The pretest surveys revealed
57% of experimental group respondents were full-time students and 68% had taken
a computer course prior to this course. The mean number of courses completed
toward a counseling degree was 5.3 with an average of 17.6 semester hours
accumulated. Only one experimental group member reported that they had taken a
course within the counselor education curriculum that utilized technology in the
course.
The
respondents were asked to identify the types of technology they currently used
or have used previous to this course. Responses indicated 100% had used word
processing software, 81% had used electronic mail, 50% had utilized audiovisual
equipment, 44% had a course using web-based or web-assisted instruction, 18%
acknowledged use of statistical programs, 18% cited usage of a listserv, 6% had
used a cd-rom, and 6% indicated other technology.
The
posttest survey was completed by only 12 of the 16 original respondents. Two
respondents specified they had taken a course within counselor education
curriculum that utilized technology. Respondents were asked to identify the
types of technology they currently used or had used before the technology
course. These responses yielded the following frequency information on usage was
provided: 96% word processing software, 89% electronic mail, 53% audiovisual
equipment, 54% web-based or web-assisted instruction, 32% statistical software,
25% listserv, 14% cd-roms, and 7% other technology.
Control Group
The
control group consisted of 10 masters students enrolled in the 7C: 281
Introduction to Computers For Counselors course.
The control group consisted of 60.0% females and 40.0% males. Fifty
percent of the respondents were in the student development program, 30% were in
rehabilitation counseling program, and 20% were in the school counseling
program. These respondents ranged in age from 21-33 years. The majority (70%) of
the respondents were in the 22-27 age range. Eighty percent were full-time
students and 70% had taken a computer course prior to this class. The average
number of courses taken toward completion of a counseling degree was 5.6 with a
mean cumulative semester hours score of 15.8. Two respondents from the control
group reported they had taken a counseling course, which required the use of
technology. Respondents were asked to identify the types of technology
experience they held prior to the technology course. Their responses indicated
usage in the following areas: 100% word processing software, 100% electronic
mail, 60% audiovisual equipment, 60% web-based or web-assisted instruction, 10%
statistical software, 60% listservs, 3% cd-roms, and 1% other technology.
Procedures
Prospective
participants were master’s level counselor education students at The
University of Iowa in the College of Education enrolled in the 7C: 281
Introduction to Computers in Counseling one-hour semester course. The students
were given a cover letter introducing the research study, a survey and an
informed consent document for voluntary participation in the study during the
first class session. Students could
choose not to participate by checking no on the informed consent document and
returning the uncompleted surveys. Completed surveys to be given to the
researchers were placed in an envelope. The informed consent documents were
placed in a separate envelope to maintain the anonymity of the participants.
Students were given the same survey again at the end of the semester as a
posttest survey.
Measures
Demographic
information. Students were asked to provide the following demographic
information: gender, age, degree program, computer courses taken, degree of
computer skills, types of courses completed, courses taken that integrated
web-based or web-assisted instruction, types of technologies used, number of
courses completed toward degree, and number of semester hours completed. Surveys
were coded based on whether they were pre or post-test
instruments.
Computer Technology
Competencies Scale (CTCS). The CTCS was created using 12 competency areas
recommended by the ACES Technology Interest Network and developed 15 items to
measure an individual’s competence level on the technology competency. A
5-point Likert scale was developed, ranging from 1 (not familiar) to 5 (very
confident). Participants were instructed to indicate their competence level on
each of 15 computer technology items. The initial reliability data revealed good
internal consistency, with a with Cronbach’s alpha of a =. 93. Validity data
for CTCS are not available.
Situational
Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000). This 20-item
Situational Motivation scale consists of five subscales with four questions
designed to assess situational variables that affect the experience of intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Extrinsic motivation was
identified through two extrinsic motivational subscales of identified regulation
and external regulation. Intrinsic motivation was identified through one
intrinsic motivational subscale. Amotivation was identified through one
amotivation subscale. The measure of introjected regulation was developed by
borrowing from a previously validated questionnaire (Reason to Work Scale, RTWS;
Ryan & Connell, 1989). The items from the RTWS were adapted specifically for
this study. The adapted items used precise experiences in distance education
obtained from a literature review of self-determination.
The
SIMS scale uses the response stem (e.g., “Why are you currently participating
in distance education?” or “Why are you currently not participating in
distance education?”), with a 1 to 7 Likert response scale (strongly disagree,
disagree, somewhat disagree, neutral, somewhat agree, agree, strongly agree) for
each of the 20 items. Totals for each subscale were computed by averaging the
relevant four items. Guay et al. (2000) reported the construct validity and
assessed it by two correlation analyses. Their results found an overall pattern
of interrelations among the subscales is formed from an ordered pattern of those
subscales adjacent along the continuum. For example, intrinsic motivation
correlated positively with identified regulation (r =. 36) but negatively with
amotivation (r = -.41). The second correlation analysis was performed between
the SIMS subscales and perceived competence and concentration/behavioral
intentions. There was a strong positive correlation (SIMS subscales with
motivational determinant and consequences) observed with intrinsic motivation
and identified regulation but a strong negative correlation with amotivation and
external regulation. These correlations were consistent with those predicted by
self-determination theory. The subscales’ internal consistency values or
Cronbach Alphas were: intrinsic motivation a =.92, identified regulation a =.80,
external regulation a =.86, and amotivation a =.77.
Results
Data
Analysis
Prior
to analysis, variables were examined for accuracy of data entry, missing values,
and fit between their distributions. During data entry, precautions were taken
to ensure there was no human error in the data entry process. The precaution
procedures were to pull out every third questionnaire and check to see if the
data entered into SPSS were correct.
All
analyses were performed using SPSS 9.0 (SPSS, 1998) to provide descriptive
statistics. Internal consistency for the two scales used in the study was
explored by calculating alpha coefficients of reliability for the total score of
each scale as well as SIMS subscales. Frequencies and means were calculated for
all demographic characteristics of the sample.
In
keeping with the cohort design, the statistical hypotheses were that the mean
scores of the experimental group pretest did differ from those of the
experimental group posttest scores on the CTCS. A one-way analysis of variance
was performed to test this hypothesis. The CTCS scale items were computed by
averaging items. The dependent variables were CTCS averaged score. The
independent variable in this research was time when the test was taken (pretest
or posttest). The results revealed that computer competency was increased after
taking the introductory computer course.
The
results of the analysis of variance revealed that the experimental group
differed significantly from the control group on the Computer Technology
Competency Scale (F (1, 20) = 7.519, p = .013).
Examination of the group means revealed a significant difference in mean
scores between the experimental group (M =3.60) and control group (M = 2.71) on
computer competencies. This result
demonstrates an increase in computer competency after completing the required
introduction to computers in counseling course.
The
results of the t-test revealed that several items on the CTCS scale yielded a
significant difference between the experimental and control groups: ethics
(t[19] = 4.254, p=.000), assisting client with internet searches (t[19] = 2.199,
p=.040), statistical package (t[20] = 5.520, p=.000), listserv (t[19] = 2.705,
p=.014), cd-rom (t[19] = 2.827, p=.011), presentation software (t[20] = 2.237,
p=.037), and evaluating information from the internet (t[20] = 2.359, p=.029).
As indicated in Table 1, the group means indicate that the experimental group
increased computer competency after completing the course under the following
competency items: ethics (M=4.00), assisting clients with Internet searches
(M=3.00), statistical software (M=2.92), listserv (M=2.91), cd-rom (M=3.00),
presentation software (M=4.17), and evaluating information from the internet
(M=3.92). The group means from the control group indicated computer competency
were low before the computer course was taken under the following competency
items: ethics (M=2.00), assisting clients with Internet searches (M=1.70),
statistical software (M=1.10), listserv (M=1.60), cd-rom (M=1.60), presentation
software (M=3.00), and evaluating information from the internet (M=2.70).
The
results of the analysis of variance revealed that the experimental group pretest
and posttest results differed significantly on the Computer Technology
Competency Scale (F (1, 26) = 38.007, p = .000).
Examination of the group means revealed a significant difference in mean
scores between the post-test scores (M =3.60) and pre-test scores (M = 1.97) on
computer competencies. This result
demonstrates an increase in computer competency after completing the required
introduction to computers in counseling course.
The
results of the analysis of variance revealed that all the items with the
exception of word processing on the CTCS scale yielded a significant difference
between the posttest and pretest: word processing (F (1, 26) = 1.438, p = .241,
email (F (1, 26) = 4.508, p = .043), bulletin board (F (1, 26) = 12.118, p =
.002), knowledge of ethics Internet (F (1, 26) = 29.630, p = .000), computerized
testing (F (1, 26) = 12.306, p = .000), assisting clients with Internet (F (1,
26) = 11.045, p = .003), statistical packages (F (1, 26) = 39.918, p = .000),
Internet for research (F (1, 25) = 9.580, p = .005), counseling listservs (F (1,
25) = 7.080, p = .013), Internet for continuing education (F (1, 25) = 15.558, p
= .001), counseling CD-Rom (F (1, 25) = 14.103, p = .001), database (F (1, 26) =
13.180, p = .001), presentation software (F (1, 26) = 36.322, p = .000),
developing web pages (F (1, 26) = 59.313, p = .000), and evaluate the quality of
information provided via Internet (F (1, 26) = 30.128, p = .000).
As indicated in Table 2, group means indicate the experimental group posttest
results significant increase in their computer competency after completing the
course in under the following competency items: ethics posttest (M=4.00), ethics
pretest (M=2.0), computerized testing pretest M=1.56), computerized testing
posttest (M=3.0), assisting clients with Internet searches pretest (M=1.50),
assisting clients with Internet searches posttest (M=2.82), statistical software
pretest (M=1.19), statistical software posttest (M=2.92), listserv posttest
(M=1.50), listserv pretest (M=2.91), cd-rom pretest (M=1.50), cd-rom posttest
(M=3.00), presentation software pretest (M=1.75), presentation software posttest
(M=4.17), evaluating information from the internet posttest (M=1.88), and
evaluating information from the internet posttest (M=3.92).
Results
that measure motivation towards computers revealed no group differences existed
on motivation factors of participants in the study on external regulation,
identified regulation (value toward computers), introjected regulation
(participating because of guilt), amotivation (indifferent), intrinsic (engaging
because I want to too). Thus, indicating motivation toward computer usage may
not be a factor in training.
Discussion
Findings
from this study support the research hypothesis that students will increase
their computer competency based on completing a computer course. The results
enhance McFadden and Jencius’ (2000) suggestion
that computer competency is a developmental skill and the results showed that
those skills can be enhanced with an introductory computer course.
As
indicate by the Table 1 of Means of Experimental and Control Group, there are
increased levels of competency for the 12 areas recommended by the ACES
Technology Interest Network. It should be noted that both the experimental group
(EG) and the control group (CG) yielded lower mean scores on some of the
competency areas indicating the need for further research and instruction. These
competency areas included: assisting clients with Internet searches (EG, M=2.82;
CG, M=1.70), statistical packages (EG, M=2.92; CG, M=1.10), listserv (EG,
M=2.91; CG, M=1.60), and cd-rom (EG, M=3.00; CG, M=1.60).
Also noted, the experimental group pretest and posttest results showed
significant difference among all the items on CTCS with the exception of word
processing. Therefore, student competency areas were low on all the items
In
this study both the experimental and control groups demonstrated similar levels
of motivation to participate in computer technology as indicated by scores on
the SIMS motivational scale. Thus, they were not hindered in participating in
computer technology. However, the course appears to help students improve skills
on some of the computer competencies. Areas such as, being familiar with
statistical packages, assisting clients in internet searches, and knowledge of
listservs need an increase in competency level. Thus, the computer course
curriculum must be modified to improve competency level in these areas.
Implications
for Counselors
Implications
for counselors are tempered by considerations of threats to validity. First,
external validity is threatened by the restricted nature of the sample and the
purposive sampling strategy. Second, the multiple t-tests increase the
probability of Type 1 error. Third, the institutional cohort design, by its
nature, is relatively a weak quasi-experimental design and leaves open some
threat to internal validity, especially history. Fourth, the pretest of the
experimental group added an additional threat to internal validity (i.e.
testing). Although these threats to validity do limit the applicability of these
results, they are partially allayed by the consistency of the previous studies
using this design.
This
study suggests that computer competency increases with exposure to computer
technology in a required introductory course. Based on the research, we provide
the following suggestions to assist counselor educators implementing similar
approaches. First, consider adding a computer technology course into the
curriculum during the first year of coursework. Thus the computer course can
focus on application to practice. Providing a brief overview of the potential
integration of technology into other counselor education courses, such as
ethical considerations in cybercounseling for ethics courses, may also increase
initial competence. Second, teach application of computer technology.
Application of computer technology to practice cannot be assumed, it must be
taught. The application of computer technology is normally taught through
performance assessment. Students are taught how to operate and demonstrate
different software and equipment by producing several assignments for the
course. These assignments can be graded as pass/fail. This may benefit the
student by allowing them to learn programs without feeling pressure to receive
letter grades. This also allows the instructor to discuss possible
problem-solving techniques to help the student make connections between computer
technology principles and professional practice decisions. Finally, an
introductory course, which discusses technology integration into counseling
courses in the program, aids with future instruction for faculty because
instructional time for technology is not used in the regular courses. For
example, if a faculty member incorporates
web-based or web-assisted classroom learning experiences students who have the
introductory course are prepared to move quickly into the process of learning
without being hindered by the technology.
In
summary, the essence of computer competency is obtaining knowledge, skills, and
connections with practice. This is accomplished through teaching concepts of
computer technology, providing practice with different types of software and
providing reality based applications in order to obtain a high level of computer
competency. Students appear to rate this approach as highly effective.
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