The use of information resources by clients is an integral aspect of the counseling process. Obtaining information is related to positive counseling outcomes for clients (Holland, Magoon, and Spokane, 1981; Brown and Krane, 2000). While some clients obtain information from counselors during counseling sessions, additional information is obtained and used by clients between sessions, often as homework assigned by the counselor. Some of the information resources used by clients are also used by individuals in a self-help mode. While self-help books (Dilley, 1978) have been widely available for some time, the Internet has provided an unprecedented amount of information to clients in counseling and individuals making independent use self-help resources. Information is also an integral part of orienting clients to counseling, helping clients learn about counseling procedures, (e.g., informed consent) the counseling process, (e.g., theory-based counseling techniques), and potential counseling outcomes, (e.g., improved relationship skills). The computer is particularly well suited to deliver the repetitive information typically provided in counseling orientations (Sampson, 1986; 2000).

While the term client is used throughout this article to refer to a person using a Web site, two types of Web site users actually exist. A client is a person who needs information and uses a Web site within the context of a counseling relationship. An individual is a person who needs information and uses a Web site on a self-help basis. An individual may become a client as they realize that self-help resources are insufficient and counseling is needed to resolve his of her problem. The reverse may also be true, with a client using self-help resources (as an individual)` after counseling has ended.

Many counseling and career centers have responded to increased demand for information and technological change by developing Internet Web sites. Offer and Sampson (1999) noted that Web sites in counseling and career services could perform one of the following five functions: a) funnel clients to off-line services offered by the center, b) divert clients to alternate resources to reduce the demand for existing services that are in short supply, c) provide clients with on-line services, such as information and assessments, that meet specific needs, d) provide clients with a forum to discuss counseling and career concerns with other users or with practitioners, and e) provide clients with distance learning that combines on-line services and a forum with off-line instructional resources.

The development of Internet Web sites in counseling requires a reevaluation of the role of the counselor. One position is to view the role of the counselor as delivering individual and group counseling. Another option is to augment the direct service delivery role described above with the role of a subject matter expert who contributes to Web sites that are used both in counseling and self-help applications. This second role allows counselors to potentially impact thousands of individuals (Sampson & Krumboltz, 1991). As the demand for Internet-based resources and services increases, Web sites will be created with or without input from counselors. Counselor involvement in Web site development increases the likelihood that relevant resources will be delivered that contribute to both counseling services and self-help resources (Sampson & Bloom, 2001).

As counseling and career center Web sites evolve to include more features and information resources, the effectiveness of Web site design becomes more crucial. An important question to ask is as follows. Are clients effectively finding and using resources that support the counseling process without becoming confused and overwhelmed as they navigate a counseling or career center Web site? This paper is intended to help counselors design Web sites that more effectively support counseling and the use of self-help resources by better linking resources to clearly defined needs for specific clients. This paper is also intended to help counseling and career center staff to evaluate their current Web site design and to help staff create enhanced Web sites that are more effectively used by clients. The paper begins with a discussion of potential positive outcomes of good Web site design and continues with an examination of resource-based and need-based design options and potentially effective design features. A brief study is then presented that examines the current Web site design strategies used in counseling and career centers. The paper then closes with a discussion of interpretations of study findings. The Web site design recommendations presented in this paper are based on our analysis of the literature, our analysis of existing Web sites, and our experience in designing and implementing Web sites (Florida State University Career Center and Center for the Study of Technology in Counseling and Career Development) at a comprehensive career center that provides self-help resources and delivers brief and long-term counseling.

Effective Web sites in counseling should provide easy access to relevant, high quality information that clients understand how to use. As a result of good Web site design, the client should be able to quickly a) perceive who would potentially benefit from using the Web site, b) develop a mental model (or schema) for site navigation, c) locate resources and services that meet their needs, and d) understand what to do with the resources and services they obtain (Sampson et al, 2001).

Once a decision has been made to create or enhance a counseling or career center Web site, it is important to consider the design approach that will be used by counseling center or career center staff. All Web sites contain information resources but vary in their amount of focus on client needs. In fact, Web site designs can be examined on a continuum from less to more need-based. The following section defines the advantages and disadvantages of primarily resource-based and primarily need-based Web site designs.

Resource-based Web sites are organized on the basis of the content provided or the structure of the organization sponsoring the Web site. A resource-based site usually contains lists of resources and/or external links, with or without accompanying descriptive statements. Clients then chose resources or external links that they perceive will meet their needs.

There are potential advantages associated with resource-based designs. First, expert or experienced clients who are familiar with resource or external link titles, or accompanying descriptions, can quickly find what they need. Second, development costs are lower and completion times are shorter given the reduced staff time required to conceptualize and organize site content. However, potential disadvantages are also associated with resource-based designs. The first potential difficulty is with clients locating and selecting the correct resources to meet their needs. A resource-based site implicitly assumes that a resource’s title or description provides adequate information for clients to determine if their needs will be met by that resource. Furthermore, for this title or description, it is implicitly assumed to communicate to clients the potential outcome of following the link and using the resource. The process of assessing and matching client needs to resources in order to maximize potential learning outcomes, often takes a skilled counselor several years of training and practice to develop. However, Web sites often require clients to be able to employ this skill naturally. If clients do not find the resource or link that matches their needs in a short period of time, they may become frustrated. This frustration can lead to random navigation through a Web site or to a premature exit from a site that could have delivered beneficial resources.

Given the limited contextual information that accompanies resource or link descriptions, clients are less likely to accurately predict the outcomes of using a resource or external link, to understand how to use and sequence the resource or link they find, or to know when difficulty in using a resource necessitates assistance from a counselor. Furthermore, resource-based sites often provide a long list of external links. This can present an overwhelming amount of information, making it difficult for clients to identify which external links will meet their needs. Using a schema to organize external links into conceptually related categories can minimize this limitation. However, the client is then confronted with the possibility of learning an often new, and potentially complex, classification system (Sampson et al, 2001).

While a resource based Web site is fundamentally structured around the resources offered or the structure of an organization, a need-based Web site is structured around audience members and the needs that these audience members typically present. (In this paper, a “need” is defined as the gap between what individuals know and what is necessary for them to know to solve a problem.) A need-based Web site is organized on the basis of a three-part hierarchy where resources and external links are related to identified needs for specific categories of clients (Sampson, 1999). This hierarchy is shown in Figure 1.

The top level of the site (level 1), the home page, is a list of potential kinds of audiences. (In this paper, an “audience” is defined as a group of clients with a similar set of needs who may potentially benefit from related information or services.) For each type of audience member, there are links to potential needs associated with the type of user specified (level 2). For each audience need there are one or more resources (assessments, information, or instruction) identified to potentially meet the need (level 3). Another way of conceptualizing the need-based approach is to term the approach “client-centered,” focusing on the perceptions of the client about themselves and the appropriateness of resources to meet their needs.

For each resource and external link identified, both a description is provided along with a statement of the potential outcome associated with using the resource or following the external link. Where appropriate, the client can access a description of how to use and sequence the information obtained, as well as identify the circumstances where a counselor’s assistance may be necessary. The number of external links available is limited in order to decrease the possibility that clients are overwhelmed with information. Furthermore, to further enhance the client experience, the counselor prescreens links for quality. Need-based Web sites are most appropriate for novice clients who have little experience in using a particular Web site or working in a particular content domain.

The need-based approach is similar to the counseling process; first identifying who the client is, collaborating with the client to clarify needs, and then providing resources and services to meet those needs. In short the need-based approach is the counselor’s attempt to capture the essence of the content and dialogue between the counselor and the client for a limited content area.

One potential advantage associated with need-based designs is that clients view only those resources that conceptually relate to their needs. This creates a site that appears smaller and more easily navigable. Thus, clients are more likely to quickly find needed resources and are less likely to be overwhelmed by extraneous information (e.g., external links or frequently asked questions [FAQ's]) not related to their needs. Client success in navigating the site and clarifying needs should motivate continued site use to obtain resources and services. The intention of this design is to provide well-supported access to carefully selected, high-quality resources and external links, as opposed to providing “every” resource or external link on various topics. Otherwise stated, the need-based approach emphasizes effective use of relevant resources over comprehensive access. Furthermore, proactive prompting at key points in the Web site is intended to create an environment that encourages clients to seek help from a counselor when needed.

Possible problems associated with need-based designs include the assumption that clients are capable of accurately identifying their user category. In addition, if a site map or other resource-based navigation tool is unavailable, expert clients may be frustrated by the time required to work through need-based dialogs in order to access resources. A greater amount of development time is required of counselors who must help conceptualize user categories and related client needs for the Web site. Development costs can also be higher and completion times longer given the increased staff time required to conceptualize site resource content.

The process of operationalizing the expert knowledge of counselors is not an easy task. Disagreements (on theoretical or philosophical grounds) among staff about matching client needs to resources may occur. However, if handled properly, such disagreements can lead to growth not only for the Web site, but for the organization as well. As staff members increase their familiarity with the need-based design process, they may find that the design work becomes less difficult.

A potential outcome of the need-based approach is that clients perceive that the Web site has face validity, as they are able to successfully relate themselves to an audience identification and subsequently find information that fits their needs. By viewing a smaller list of needs predetermined on the basis of expert knowledge, the client should conclude that the site is appropriate for continued use. The design and content should further encourage the client to engage the site. However, merely creating a subjective impression of validity within the client is not sufficient. Counselors must also explicitly establish the content validity of both the need-based dialogue and the resources they include in their Web sites. Counselors should ask themselves questions such as, “What evidence is available that shows the appropriate audiences are identified on the home page? What evidence exists that the needs are appropriate for the audiences identified? And what evidence is available that the resources are appropriate for the needs identified?” The answers to these questions form the basis of policy by which the design team chooses to develop and maintain Web site resources and need-based dialogues.

The need-based approach is operationalized when site counselors ask themselves three key questions. “Who does (or should) the Web site serve? What are the needs of clients? What resources are available (or should be available) to meet client needs?” Methods used for answering these three questions include a) browsing the literature on theory, research, and practice, b) soliciting client perceptions via a focus group or survey, and c) obtaining the expert judgments of staff via surveys, interviews, and/or focus groups. It is critical to include front-line personnel (e.g., counselors or receptionists) in this last method, as they are often the most aware of the content and form of questions submitted to an organization by various audience members. These staff members also usually respond with additional statements to clarify client needs and act to connect clients to appropriate resources and services. This process of incorporating staff expertise into the Web site makes the site an “intelligent” medium for delivering resources (Sampson et al, 2001). To help counselors operationalize the three questions identified above, Panke et al, (2001) have created an eight-step process for Web site design with accompanying exercises to operationalize the need-based approach.

Combining Primarily Need-Based and Primarily Resource-Based Features

It is also possible to combine the need-based and resource-based models through the use of resource-based tools, such as a site map, site index, and search mechanism, within a need-based Web site. Combining these models helps address some of the disadvantages that each model holds individually, and provides clients with the option to choose methods that support their needs and level of Web site and content expertise (Sampson et al, 2001). Examples of primarily need-based Web sites for a career center and a research center may be found at The Florida State University Career Center and The Center for the Study of Technology and Counseling in Career Development. Further site design strategies, including text documents and a PowerPoint presentation may be found at our web page on design strategies for Internet Web sites.

Effective Web sites (either resource or need-based) are congruent with the manner in which clients learn. In order to be useful, information on Web sites must promote learning by being readable, browsable, and searchable (Morgan, 1999). Table 1 identifies Web site design features that promote learning. Additional details on these Web site design features can be found in Sampson et al, (2001).

Selecting Web Site Design Features to Promote Learning

Content

Write content specifically for the Web, optimizing information chunking, scannability, and short page length

Ensure graphics are related to content, have a short download time, and are sensitive to diverse audiences

Provide help features such as general help information, first time user orientation, and “How to Use” pop-up windows

Include organizational information at a link such as "About Us" as opposed to locating organizational information on the home page

Include a privacy policy and contact information for the organization

Include time-based features such as a calendar, a “What’s New” area, and page modification dates for individual pages

Include place-based features such as maps to locate the center and images of physical environment to help orient clients to the resources and services available at the center

Design

Maintain consistency of design by

a) using templates such as clarification of audience, clarification of needs, and subsequent information delivery, and

b) using uniform headers, footers, fonts, colors, and style sheets

Maximize cognitive aspects by

a) limiting demands on memory (including only 7 ± 2 options on any page)

b) enhancing browsability (grouping and classifying similar information or items)

c) enhancing readability (using a language level appropriate for audiences served)

d) enhancing legibility (using appropriate size, type face, and color of fonts)

e) ordering menu items by developmental sequence or most frequent use

Maximize self-sufficiency by ensuring that pages can stand alone if person links from elsewhere

Maximize accessibility for persons with visual disabilities by

a) providing alternate text tags for all graphics

b) selecting colors appropriate for persons with color blindness

Navigation

Provide links that include both a descriptive label and a learning outcome

Provide feedback to the user that clarifies the path chosen to arrive a particular page

Provide resource-based tools (such as search, site map, and index) to aid novice and expert clients to find information

Evaluation

Conduct usability testing (observation) during Web site development to make appropriate adjustments

Provide documentation of the site design (authorship, design strategies, and technical specifications)

Conduct surveys on the perceptions of audiences, staff, and stakeholders

Track Web site usage, examining statistics and patterns of use

Current Web Site Design Strategies Used in College Counseling and Career Centers

To assess the state of current college counseling and career center Web sites, a survey was developed to measure a) the degree to which a need-based design was employed, b) the amount of consistency in the design of the Web site, and c) the presence of “advanced” resource-based tools (e.g., search, index, and site map). The methodology was applied to a sample of fifty colleges granting two-year degrees and fifty colleges granting four-year degrees randomly drawn from the databases of the DISCOVER (American College Testing Program, 2001) computer assisted career guidance system. The career center Web site and counseling center Web site of each of these 100 institutions were then separately browsed by two reviewers according to the methodology presented below. If a particular institution’s career center and counseling center were housed in the same administrative unit, reviewers recorded the same findings twice.

Method

The first task for each site reviewer was to evaluate each Web site on the number of need-based elements present. In order to receive the highest score of 4 points, the Web site was required to a) be organized by audiences or needs, b) use descriptive statements, outcome statements, or action verbs to describe client options, and c) describe how specific resources can meet client needs. Web sites with two of the three required elements received a score of 3. Web sites with a one of the three elements received a score of 2. Those sites with none of the elements were classified as primarily resource-based sites and thus received a score of 1. Web sites predetermined to exemplify these features were provided to reviewers throughout the rating process in order to maintain rater agreement.

Second, reviewers rated each Web site on the degree of consistency among the pages. In order for the consistency to be judged, each Web site was required to be composed of more than one page. For the purposes of this study, consistency was defined as the presence of a clear pattern in a) visual/graphic design elements (e.g., consistent use of bulleted lists), b) hyperlinks (e.g., linked menus or embedded links to a glossary), c) word choice (e.g., use of active voice in menus), and d) organization/structure of the Web site (e.g., a central metaphor or theme that organizes the site). While traversing the top levels of each Web site, reviewers considered in turn each of the four design areas while seeking evidence of existing patterns. If a pattern was judged to be present, then one point was awarded for that area. Thus each Web site could have received a minimum consistency rating of 0 points and a maximum consistency rating of 4 points. Third, each reviewer determined if each college’s career or counseling center Web site provided self-contained indices, search tools, or site maps.

After each reviewer rated each site independently, results for individual sites were compared. If the reviewers agreed on their ratings, then no further action was taken. Those ratings that were only 1 point different were averaged together. Each reviewer revisited those that were greater than 1 point different and a final score was negotiated.

Results

Description of the sample

Data describing the sample of institutions granting two and four year degrees in terms of affiliation and funding can be found in Table 2. Of those fifty colleges granting two-year degrees, 26 (52%) were publicly supported and 24 (48%) were classified as either a community college or vocational school. Twenty-two (44%) of these institutions also granted four-year degrees. The average enrollment of these institutions was 2,133 students (σ = 1,956, n = 48) with the largest institution enrolling 7,692 students and the smallest enrolling 41 students.

Of those fifty institutions granting four-year degrees, 16 (32%) were publicly funded, 19 (38%) were affiliated with religious institutions, and 15 (30%) were secular, private institutions. The average enrollment of these institutions was 3,305 students (σ = 4,679, n = 49) with the largest institution enrolling 26,692 students and the smallest enrolling only 7 students.

In summary, the two groups of institutions appeared to be different in terms of the size of their student bodies. The samples also appeared to represent the diversity of institutions (e.g., public vs. private, religious affiliated vs. secular) that exist in post-secondary education.

Rater Agreement

Overall, there was good agreement between raters on the degree to which need-based elements exist in college career and counseling center Web sites. A description of the degree of agreement between raters can be found in Table 3. Raters agreed 94% of the time when scoring the counseling center Web sites of two-year institutions on the number need-based elements present. While rating two-year career centers, raters agreed 79% of the time. None of need-based scores assigned to the 100 Web sites of two-year institutions required negotiation. While rating the need-based features of counseling center Web sites of institutions offering four-year degrees, raters agreed 84% of the time. Raters were not required to negotiate their rating for any of the 50 four-year, counseling center Web sites. While evaluating four-year college career center Web sites for need-based features, raters agreed 67% of the time, and were required to negotiate only one Web site.

There was much less agreement however, between raters judging the consistency of Web sites. For example, raters agreed on only 1 (8%) of two-year counseling center Web sites and 9 (38%) of four-year counseling Web sites. Thus, it does not appear as if the consistency rating in this study is a useful or interpretable measure of Web site quality.

As can be seen in Table 3, at both two-year and four-year institutions, fewer counseling centers than career centers offered Web sites to their clients.

When counseling centers at either kind of institution did provide a Web site, the degree to which need-based elements were used in their Web sites was less than those employed by career centers (see Table 4).

Degree of Need-Based Elements and Consistency in Counseling and Career Center Websites
of Colleges Offering Two and Four Year Programs

Career centers at four-year institutions employed the most need-based elements in their Web sites, with raters assigning average score of 1.71 compared to an average score of 1.26 for career center Web sites of two-year institutions. As mentioned previously, given the lack of agreement in consistency measure, no presentation of findings will be made here. However, it can be noted that many of colleges offering two-year degrees often have websites of only one page. Few of the Web sites offered resource based tools. Of the 200 total Web sites reviewed as part of this study, only two provided a self-contained search engine, two provided a site-map, and three provided a comprehensive alphabetical index. All of the Web sites found to offer resource-based tools were posted by career centers and the majority (5 of the 7) at institutions offering four year degrees.

The findings of this brief survey indicate that the Web sites of college counseling and career centers employ a primarily resource-based approach for delivery of information to clients. This is not surprising given the dominance of resource heavy Web sites on the Internet. The professionals who develop these Web sites may simply be imitating what they have become familiar with through their own use of the medium.

However, it appears that career centers offer Web sites that are more need-based than counseling centers. The initial page of a career center Web site is more likely to distinguish between different audiences or group similar client needs together. This may be due to college career centers traditionally serving several well-defined audiences in comparison with college counseling centers. Through experience, career center staff may have learned that different audiences approach the same problem with different needs and expectations. For example, college career centers are often responsible for an institution’s job placement program. Administering such a program requires frequent contact with both students and employers. Both of these audiences have the same problem to solve (e.g., participating in on-campus interviews), but will have different needs while solving the problem (e.g., students need to practice interviewing skills and employers need to identify students to interview).

It also appears that institutions offering four-year degrees are also more likely to employ need-based elements in their Web sites. This may be due to the larger number of students requiring access to services. Often the need to serve a larger client base results in greater funding, a larger staff, and more expansive technological resources. The increased demand for services and more plentiful resources may allow career centers at four-year institutions to invest more in the development of Internet-based information and services.

The operationalized definition of consistency may not have performed well in this study due to aesthetic judgments made by the raters. However, the authors’ confidence in the importance of consistent Web site design remains. As we consume information, we rely on a variety of metaphors and patterns to anticipate inputs. When these expectations are violated (as they are by many Web sites) it can become more difficult to find, process and apply desired information we receive. Thus further investigation into the conceptualization and operationalization of consistent Web design is required.

Web sites for counseling and career centers have evolved from electronic brochures to dynamic portals for delivering resources and services to clients and individuals in addition to fostering communication among clients and counselors. By initially focusing on the potential needs of audience members, instead of the resources available, Web sites for counseling and career centers can increase the likelihood that clients can find and use resources that are available. Web sites can also be more effective by making the site congruent with the way in which clients learn. The effectiveness of Web sites can be further enhanced by following an implementation plan that anticipates important issues and maximizes staff collaboration (Sampson et al, in press).

It is important to acknowledge that potential ethical problems exist in relation to confidentiality, validity, limited access, counselor dependence, inadequate counselor awareness of location-specific circumstances, services delivered by non-credentialed practitioners, a lack of recommendations of when counseling is needed, and the potential lack of auditory and visual privacy in distance counseling (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997; Sampson & Bloom, 2001). One approach to dealing with these potential ethical issues is to follow an implementation plan that includes reviewing professional standards during Web site development. Rather than delaying Web site development because of potential ethical problems, staff members should use the design and implementation process as an opportunity to proactively address ethical issues. Web sites will always be a mixture of problems and opportunity. As always, our task as counselors is to design and make best use of the technology of our time.


	Counseling Centers		Career Centers
	Need-Based*	Consistency*	Need-Based*	Consistency*
Two-Year	1.03 (.12)	.84 (1.18)	1.26 (.48)	1.24 (1.13)
Four-Year	1.14 (.39)	1.25 (1.31)	1.71 (.57)	1.71 (1.32)

Combining Primarily Need-Based and Primarily Resource-Based Features

Selecting Web Site Design Features to Promote Learning

Content

Design

Navigation

Evaluation

Method

Results

Description of the sample

Rater Agreement

Two Year Degree Institutions

Four Year Degree Institutions